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INDO-IRANIAN   PHONOLOGY 

WITH  SPECIAL   REFERENCE 
TO   THE 

MIDDLE  AND  NEW  INDO-IRANIAN  LANGUAGES 


INDO-IRANIAN   PHONOLOGY 

WITH   SPECIAL   REFERENCE   TO   THE 

Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian 
Languages 


BY 

LOUIS    H.    GRAY,   A.M. 

SUBMITTED  IN  PARTIAL  FULFILMENT  OF  THE  REQUIREMENTS  FOR  THE 
DEGREE  OF  DOCTOR  OF  PHILOSOPHY 
IN  THE 
FACULTY  OF  PHILOSOPHY,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


THE  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 

The  Macmillan  Company,  Agents 
66  Fifth  Avenue 

1902 


PRINTED    AT  OXFORD 

ENGLAND 

BY    HORACE    HART,    M.A. 

PRINTER   TO  THE   UNIVERSITY 


c>' 


TO 

MY   FATHER 

AND   TO 
THE   MEiMORY  OF 

MY   MOTHER 


INTRODUCTION 

The  united  evidence  of  comparative  linguistics,  ethnography, 
and  religion  has  established  the  doctrine  of  Indo-Iranian  unity  on 
a  firm  foundation,  thereby  affording  a  cardinal  doctrine  for  the 
comparative  study  of  Sanskrit,  Avestan,  and  Old  Persian.  The 
work  of  Wackernagel  and  of  Bartholomae,  based  upon  this  principle, 
has  given  the  older  dialects  of  the  Indo-Iranian  their  due.  But, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  phonology  of  the  Middle  and  New  periods 
of  this  group  has  not  thus  far  received  the  attention  which  it 
deserves,  and  it  is  in  an  attempt  to  supply  the  deficiency  that  this 
volume  has  been  written.  It  aims  to  prove  that  the  later  Indo- 
Iranian  dialects  are  still  closely  akin,  and  have  had  in  many 
instances  analogous  developments,  which  are  legitimate  evolutions 
of  processes  acknowledged  in  the  oldest  Indo-Germanic  languages 
of  India  and  Iran. 

A  priori  we  should  expect  dialects  derived  from  a  common 
source  to  pursue  similar  courses  of  phonological  development,  as 
far  as  their  surroundings,  changing  in  course  of  time,  permit.  To 
deny  this  seems  tantamount  to  attacking  the  entire  principle  of 
phonetic  law  on  which  comparative  linguistics  must  rest.  To 
affirm  it  is  to  give  new  strength  to  scientific  research.  The  Middle 
and  New  Indo-Iranian  languages  show  many  developments  in 
phonology  which  may  be  paralleled  with  entire  justice.  To  such 
similarities  I  have  sought  to  call  attention,  and  I  hope  that  the 
material  which  has  been  gathered  may  be  of  service  to  other 
linguistic  students,  and  prove  that  the  underlying  principle  of 
the  book  has  its  justification. 

A  paper  of  mine,  entitled  Certain  parallel  Developments  in  Pcdi 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

and  New  Persian  Thonoloijy,  read  before  the  American  Oriental 
Society  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  in  April,  1899  {JAOS.,  xx,  229-243), 
outlined  the  method  which  I  have  followed  in  this  book.  I  advanced 
my  views  on  the  comparison  of  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian 
dialects  before  the  Society  in  the  following  words  : 

'  It  is  a  well-known  fact  in  linguistics  that  languages  which  are 
entirely  without  influence  one  on  the  other  often  show  a  striking 
similarity  in  their  development.  The  Indo-Iranian  group  is 
especially  instructive  in  this  regard,  for  its  time-limit  extends  from 
the  period  of  Indo-Iranian  imity  to  the  present  day,  while  its 
geographical  area  stretches  from  the  Siiiihalese  in  the  south  to  the 
MazandaranI  in  the  north,  and  from  the  Kurdish  in  the  west  to 
the  Bangall  in  the  east.  Between  the  Indian  and  the  Iranian 
divisions  of  the  Aryan  dialects  a  development  may  be  traced  which 
is  frequently  closely  parallel.  .  .  .  Such  a  study,  which  it  is  my 
hope  and  intention  to  make,  might  be  of  service  in  the  study  of 
dialectic  developments  in  general,  and  although  confined  to  the 
Indo-Iranian  dialects,  it  might  by  its  implications  be  not  altogether 
without  bearing  on  the  interests  of  the  great  body  of  the  Indo- 
Germanic  phonology.' 

The  result  of  the  investigations  which  I  there  proposed  to  make 
has  been,  at  least  to  me,  a  signal  confirmation  of  my  belief. 

Mine  is  not  the  first  attempt  to  parallel  the  phonological  evolu- 
tion of  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects.  The  first 
Orientalist  who,  so  far  as  I  know,  drew  attention  to  the  connexion 
between  the  two  great  modern  dialect-groups  was  Eeland.  He 
wrote  in  his  study  Be  Unguis  insularum  orientalium  ('Disserta- 
tiones  miscellaneae,'  iii.  86,  Traj.  ad  Ehenum,  1708),  'Nonnullae 
voces  [linguae  singalaeae]  cum  Persicis  conveniunt,  uti  Asivajaa, 
equus,  u^l  Asp,  Mahasa,  arcanum,  jl^  Ras,  NH  Chaldaeis,  arcanum. 
BancUnjai,  ligo,  j^.  Band,  Deivijan,  Deus,  Pers.  j>i  Div,  Genius.' 
(Cf.  also  Benfey,  Gesch.  der  SpracMvissensch.,  241.)  A  very  similar 
suggestion  was  made  exactly  a  century  later,  when  '  en  1808  John 
Leyden  fait  du  zend  im  dialecte  pracrit,  parallele  au  pali,  le  pali 
etant  identique  au  magadhi  des  grammairiens  et  le  zend  a  leur 


INTRODUCTION  ix 

sauraseni.  En  1819,  Erskine  fait  du  zend  un  dialectc  Sanscrit 
importe  de  I'lnde  en  Perse  par  le  fondateur  dc  Magisme,  mais 
n'ayant  jamais  ete  parle  par  les  indigenes  de  Perse '  (Darmesteter, 
Le  ZA.,  i.  p.  xxi,  cf.  SHE.,  iv.  2,  p.  xxiii).  In  1873  Trunipp  in 
his  Grammar  of  the  Fqsto  or  Language  of  the  Afghans  compared 
with  the  Iranian  and  North-Indian  Idioms  revived  the  view  that 
the  later  Indo-Iranian  dialects  were  closely  connected  linguistically, 
even  though  his  work  was  vitiated  by  liis  false  theory  that  Afyan 
is  '  an  old  independent  language,  forming  the  first  transition  from 
the  Indo-Arian  to  the  Iranian  family,  and  therefore  partaking  of 
the  characteristics  of  both '  (p.  xii.  Cf.  the  approving  remarks 
of  Hoernle,  Comp.  Gramm.,  xxxiv-xxxv,  as  contrasted  with 
Darmesteter,  Chants  popidaires  des  Afghans,  p.  lix).  Finally,  in 
1898,  Horn,  Grundr.  der  iran.  PhiloL,  i.  b.  35  Anm.,  compared 
the  Iranian  change  of  r  to  e  in  Skt.  vrksa  '  tree,'  Av.  vardsa  :  Phi. 
vesaTi,  New  Pers.  hesah  with  the  Prakritic  geha  '  house '  beside 
grha  (see  below,  §  78).  The  same  scholar  also  alludes  to  the 
mutations  common  to  both  dialect-groups  of  initial  y  to  j,  of  inter- 
vocalic k  to  g,  or  its  syncope,  of  the  epenthesis  of  -arg-  to  -er-,  and 
of  the  apparent  substitution  of  y  for  intervocalic  d  and  g  (see  below, 
§§  331,  116,  128,  8,  256,  143).  Geiger,  ibid.,  208,  notes  that  the 
occasional  interchange  of  I  and  n  in  Afyan  may  be  paralleled  in 
Indian  (see  below,  §  281).  Against  the  view  held  by  Geiger  and 
Horn,  Hiibschmann  has  expressed  himself  emphatically  {IF.  An2., 
X.  23),  but  his  objection  seems  to  me  scarcely  valid. 

The  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects  wliich  I  have  con- 
sidered may  be  classified  as  follows  : 

a.  Indian.  1.  Middle  Indian  or  Prakrit.  Tliis  group  embraces 
Maharastrl,  the  Prakrit  Kar  e^ox^i',  with  Jaina  Maharastrl,  Magadhi 
and  Ardhamagadhi  (also  called  Arsa  and  Jaina  Praki'it),  and 
Sam'asenI,  the  principal  Prakrit  of  the  drama.  These  form  the 
literary  dialects  called  hJicisd  by  Markandeya,  wliile  the  lower 
Prakrits  used  in  literature,  Sakarl,  Candrdi,  Sabarl,  and  others 
form  Markandeya's  vibhasa  class.  The  other  Middle  Indian  groups 
are  Apabhraihsa  and  Paisaci.     Apabhramsa  denotes  the  Middle 


X  INTRODUCTION 

Indian  vernaculars  as  distinguished  from  tlio  Prakrits  or  literary 
dialects  of  the  period.  PaisiicT  together  with  Culikapaisaci  seems 
to  have  comprised  the  dialects  of  the  north  and  west  of  India 
(Pischel,  Gramm.  der  PraJcrit-Spr.,  ^§  1-30,  of.  also  Hoernle, 
Calcutta  Ecv.,  Ixxi.  311-332 ;  Grierson,  ibid.,  ci.  258-274).  A 
somewhat  peculiar  position  is  held  by  the  so-called  Gcitha  dialect 
of  the  Lalita-vistara,  and  by  the  Prakrit  of  the  inscriptions 
(Pischel's  'Lenadialekt').  The  Gatha  dialect  is  an  artificial  compo- 
sition of  Prakrit  bases  with  Sanskrit  mflections  (Macdonell,  Hist. 
of  Skt.  Lit.,  25-26),  while  the  Lena  dialect,  a  popular  Middle  Indian 
lingua  franca,  shows  many  Sanskritisms  in  its  Prakrit  (or  Apa- 
bhrariisa)  structure  (Pischel,  §  7).  As  Ardhamagadhi  and  Jaina 
Maharastri  became  the  sacred  dialects  of  Jainism,  so  Pali  was  the 
language  of  the  southern  Buddhist  Church.  From  what  district 
of  India  Pali  came  is  very  uncertain.  Geiger,  Lit.  und  Spr.  der 
Singh.,  90-91,  very  plausibly  supposes  that  the  country  comprised 
by  modern  Gujarat  was  its  home  (for  other  views  see  E.  Miiller, 
Fali  Gramm.,  viii-ix).  The  Middle  Indian  languages  are  not 
descendants  of  Sanskrit,  but  of  the  Vedic  dialect  and  its  neigh- 
bours. Buried  for  a  time  by  the  literary  supremacy  of  Sanskrit, 
they  emerged  when  the  religious  movements  of  Buddha  and  Maha- 
vlra  and  the  development  of  the  drama  gave  them  opportunity, 
and  they  then  proved  themselves  worthy  of  cultivation  in  literature, 
both  sacred  and  profane  (Pischel,  §§  13-15). 

2.  New  Indian.  The  New  Indian  dialects  arc  derived  from  the 
Apabhi-aihsas  or  folk-dialects  of  the  Prakrits.  Any  attempt  to 
trace  rigidly  Modern  Indian  dialects  to  specific  Middle  Indian 
predecessors  is  difficult  with  the  sources  now  under  our  control. 
Pischel,  §  5,  derives  GujaratI,  or  Marwari,  from  Saurasenl-Apa- 
Ijliraihsa,  Manlthl  from  Maharilstri-Apabhramsa,  while  Bihilrl  and 
Western  Bangfill  seem  to  come  from  Magadhi-Apabhramsa  through 
the  Lat,  or  Pillar,  dialect.  The  Indian  basis  of  Simhalcse  and 
Maladive  is  derived  from  a  dialect  closely  akin  to  Pali  (Geiger, 
Lit.  und  Spr.  der  Singh.,  86-93).  Hoernle,  Comp.  Gramm.,  xxiv- 
XXV,  and  Ccdcuita  Hev.,  Ixxi,  311-332,  Bcamcs,  Com}).  Gramm.,  i. 


INTRODUCTION  xi 

6-7,  33-34,  and  Grierson,  Seven  Grammars  .  .  .  of  the  Bilidri 
Language,  pt.  i,  Calcutta,  1883,  3-7,  should  also  be  consulted. 

I  have  discussed  the  New  Indian  dialects  in  the  following  order: 
Assamese,  Naipilll,  Kasmlrl,  Uriya,  Bangtill,  Biharl,  Hindi,  Pan- 
jiibl,  Sindhi,  Gujarntl,  Marathi,  Simhalese  and  its  older  form  Ehi, 
Maladive,  and  Gypsy.  There  are  numerous  sub-dialects  in  all  of 
them.  The  most  comprehensive  classification  of  these  languages 
is  in  Grierson's  Linguistic  Survey  of  India,  First,  Bough  List, 
Calcutta,  1898.  Here,  for  instance,  sixty-four  sub-dialects  of 
Gujarat!  are  given  with  their  districts  and  the  number  of  persons 
speaking  them  ;  Bangall  has  sixteen  varieties  of  vernacular,  and 
Western  Hindi  fifty-two.  For  further  information  sec  Cust, 
Modern  Languages  of  the  East  Indies,  London,  1878,  35-64, 
158-161 ;  Beanies,  Comp.  Gramm.,  i,  96-107 ;  Geiger,  Lit.  imd  Spr. 
der  Singh.,  88-89. 

Language  maps  of  India  should  also  be  consulted,  such  as  those 
given  in  Hoernle's  Comp.  Gramm.,  and  his  edition  of  the  Frdhrta- 
Laksana,  Calcutta,  1880  ;  Beames's  Outlines  of  Indian  Philology, 
London,  1868  ;  Grierson's  Seveti  Gramm.  of  Bihdri,  i ;  Cust's 
3Iod.  Lang,  of  the  East  Ind.  ;  Constable's  Hand  Atlas  of  India, 
Westminster,  1893,  plate  10,  and  others. 

b.  Iranian.  1.  Middle  Iranian.  The  sole  surviving  representa- 
tive of  Middle  Iranian  is  Middle  Persian,  or  Pahlavl,  which  is 
closely  related  to  Old  Persian  (Salemann,  Grimdr.  der  iran.  Bhilul., 
i.  225-226). 

2.  New  Iranian.  New  Iranian  dialects  are  exceedingly  numerous. 
They  are  divided  as  follows  :  New  Persian  and  the  dialects  of  the 
Pamir,  Caspian,  and  Central  districts,  Afyan,  BalucI,  Kurdish,  and 
Ossetish.  The  Pamir  dialects  include  Waxi,  Siynl,  Sariqoll, 
EosanI,  Tajiki,  SanglicI,  Minjani  or  MungI,  Yidyah,  and  Yaynobi 
(Geiger,  Grundr.  der  iran.  Phil.,  i.  b.  290-291).  Caspian  dialects 
are  SamnanI,  MazandaranI,  Lahljani,  Gllaki,  TalisI,  and  Tat 
(Geiger,  346-348).  The  Central  dialects  embrace  GabrI,  SirazI, 
BahbahanI,  Sivendi,  Yazdl,  Zafrahl,  Kasahi,  Vonisuni,  Kuhrudi, 
Nayini,   Natanzl,    and    KaSanl   (Geiger,   381-383).      The   Afyan 


xii  INTRODUCTION 

dialects  are  the  Northern  and  Southern,  which  do  not  differ 
materially  from  each  other  (Gcigcr,  203  ;  Darmcstcter,  Chants  pop., 
p.  iv).  BalucI,  the  most  primitive  of  all  the  Now  Iranian  dialects, 
has  two  divisions,  Northern  and  Southern  (or  Makrani),  which 
diverge  considerably.  The  greater  portion  of  BalucI  literature  is 
in  the  Northern  vernacular,  but  the  Makrani  is  the  more  primitive 
speech.  North  BalucI  is  divided  into  Layarl  in  the  North  and 
MarrI  in  the  South,  while  Southern  BalucI  comprises  Eastern 
and  Western  sub-dialects  (Geiger,  232).  The  chief  divisions  of 
Kurdish  are  Lurl,  Kirmansahl,  GuranI,  MukrI,  and  Zaza  (Socin, 
Grundr.  der  iran.  Fhilol,  i.  b.  249-252,  cf.  Justi,  Kurd.  Gramm., 
pp.  xix-xxvii).  The  sub-groups  of  the  Ossetish  are  Tagaurish  or 
Irish,  Ironish,  in  the  (North-)  East,  Digorish  or  Dugorish,  in  the 
(North-)  West,  and  Tualish  in  the  South.  Tagaurish,  of  which 
Tuahsh  is  merely  a  sub-dialect,  is  by  far  the  most  important  Osse- 
tish vernacular  (Hiibschmann,  Etymol.  und  Lautl.  der  oss.  Spr., 
11-12).  The  admirable  summary  of  New  Iranian  by  Geiger, 
Grundr.  der  iran.  Philol.,  i.  b.  417-423,  and  his  language  chart, 
ibid.,  421,'  should  bo  consulted  in  this  connexion.  Kecent  biblio- 
graphy on  INIiddle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  may  be  gathered 
from  Scherman's  Orientalische  Bihliographie,  and  older  literature 
is  collected  by  Pott,  Techmer's  Zeitschrift,  ii.  109-115,  209-213, 
230-234,  241-248. 

I  have  intentionally  refrained  throughout  my  work  from  foot- 
notes and  references  to  my  sources,  which  would  have  unduly 
increased  the  size  of  the  book.  I  have  endeavoured,  however,  to 
work  through  the  principal  literature  on  my  subject,  and  to  be  as 
complete  as  possible.  For  the  Prakrit  I  had  to  rely  mainly  on 
Hemacandra  (ed.  Pischel,  Halle,  1877-1880),  Vararuci  (cd.  CowelP, 
London,  1868),  and  the  Prakrta-laksana  (ed.  Hoernle,  Calcutta, 
1880).  Lassen's  Institutiones  linguae  pracriticae,  Bonn,  1837  ; 
Hoerne,  Calcutta  Rev.,  Ixxi.  311-332,  and  Bhandarkar,  JBASBo., 
xvii.  1-48,  also  furnished  hints.  Pischel's  Grammatih  der  Frdlrit- 
Sj^rachen,  Stnissburg,  1900,  did  not  appear  until  after  my  manu- 
script was  in  the  printer's  hands.     I  have  used  it,  nevertheless, 


INTRODUCTION  xiii 

in  correcting  my  proof,  although  somotimes,  for  t}'pographical 
reasons,  errors  in  the  Prakrit,  arising  from  too  close  adherence  on 
my  part  to  the  native  grammarians,  could  be  checked  only  by  a 
reference  to  Pischel  (e.  g.  §§  25,  57,  121,  184,  etc.).  For  Ardha- 
magadhl  I  relied  mainly  on  E.  Miiller's  Beitriige  zur  Gratmnatik 
des  Jainaprdkrit,  Berlin,  1876  ;  for  Maharastrl  on  Jacobi's  Ausge- 
wahltc  ErziiJilungcn,  Leipzig,  1886,  and  for  the  '  Gatha  dialect '  on 
E.  MuUer,  KB.,  viii.  257-292,  and  Lcfmann,  ZBMG.,  xxix.  212- 
234.  The  material  on  the  Lena  dialect  is  drawn  from  Senart's 
Inscriptions  de  Piyadasi,  Paris,  1881-1886.  I  used  for  Pali  the 
grammars  of  E.  INIuller  (London,  1884),  Frankfurter  (London, 
1883),  Minayeff  (tr.  Guyard,  Paris,  1874) ;  Kuhn's  Beitrage  sur 
PaU-Grammatik,  Berlin,  1876,  and  articles  by  Mitra,  JBASBe., 
xxiii.  604-614,  and  Bhandarkar,  JRASBo.,  xvi.  275-313, 

For  the  New  Indian  I  had,  of  course,  the  excellent,  though 
somewhat  antiquated,  Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Modern  Aryan 
Languages  of  India,  by  Beames,  London,  1872-1879 ;  Hoernle's 
Comparative  Grammar  of  the  Gaitdian  Languages,  London,  1880, 
and  articles  by  Grierson,  ZBMG.,  xlix.  393-421, 1. 1-42  ;  Calcutta 
Rev.,  ci.  258-274,  and  Bhandarkar,  JBASBo.,  xvi.  314-345,  xvii. 
99-182.  Among  my  sources  for  individual  New  Indian  dialects  I 
may  mention  particularly  Grierson's  Seven  Grammars  of  the  Bialects 
and  Sub-dialects  of  the  Bihdri  Language,  Part  I,  Calcutta,  1883, 
and  his  papers  on  Kasmlrl  phonology,  JBASBe.,  Ixv.  280-305, 
Ixvi.  180-184 ;  Kellogg,  Grammar  of  the  Hindi  Language, 
Allahabad,  1876 ;  Trumpp,  Grammar  of  the  Sindhi  Language, 
London,  1872  (cf.  ZDMG.,  xv.  690-752)  ;  and  the  articles  on 
Simhalese  by  Kuhn,  Sit£:b.  M.  Ac.  der  Wiss.,  Philos.-philol.  CI, 
1879,  399-434  (tr.  D.  Fergusson,  lA.,  xiii.  53-65);  E.  Muller, 
lA.,  xi.  198-220,  and  Geiger,  Ahh.  M.  Ac.  der  Wiss.,  I.  CI,  xxi. 
177-273.  The  latter  scholar's  Literatur  und  Sprache  der  Singha- 
lesen,  Strassburg,  1901,  and  Mdldivische  Studicn,  Sitsh.  M.  Ac.  der 
Wiss.,  Philos.-philol.  CI,  1900,  641-684,  ZB3IG.,  Iv.  371-387, 
came  in  time  to  correct  the  final  proof.  My  source  for  Gypsy 
phonology,  a  group  of  dialects  to  which  I  have  referred  but  rarely, 


xiv  INTRODUCTION 

is  tho  study  l)y  Mikloslch  in  the  Denkschriften  der  W.  Ac.  dcr 
Wiss.,  FJtil.-liist.  CL,  xxx. 

The  Iranian  material  is  far  less  scattered.  For  Pahlavl  I  relied 
mainly  on  the  Manuel  de  Pehlevi  of  de  Harlez,  Paris,  1880 ;  Spiegel's 
Grammatik  der  Hiizvdresch-Siirache,  Vienna,  1856  ;  the  edition  of 
the  Frahang-I  Oim  and  the  Sassanian  Frahang  ('  Old  Zand-Pahlavi ' 
and  '  Old  Pahlavi-Pazand  '  glossaries)  by  Hoshangji  and  Haug, 
Bombay  and  London,  1867-1870  (see  the  excellent  new  edition  by 
Eeichelt,  WZKM.,  xiv.  177-213,  xv.  117-156),  and  the  edition  of 
The  Book  of  Arda  Viraf  by  Haug  and  West,  Bombay  and  London, 
1872-1874.  Salemann's  Blitteljjersisch  in  the  Geiger-Kuhn  Grund- 
riss  came  after  the  final  proofs  were  read.  This  Grundriss  der 
iranischen  Philolof/ie,  edited  by  Geiger  and  Kuhn,  Strassburg, 
1895  to  date,  has  been  my  main  source  for  New  Persian,  the 
Pamir,  Central,  and  Caspian  dialects,  Afyan,  BalucI,  and  Kurdish. 
It  has  been  supplemented  for  New  Persian  material  by  Horn's 
Neupersisclie  Etijmolofjie,  Strassbm-g,  1893,  and  Hiibsehmann's 
Persische  Studlen,  Strassburg,  1895 ;  for  Afyan,  by  Trumpp's 
Grammar  of  the  Pqsto,  London,  1873,  Darmesteter,  Chants  popu- 
laires  des  Afghans,  Paris,  1888-1890,  and  Geiger,  Ahh.  M.  Ac. 
der  Wiss.,  I.  CI.,  xx.  169-222 ;  for  Baluci,  by  Geiger,  ibid.,  xix. 
107-153,  399-464,  Sitsh.  M.  Ac.  der  Wiss.,  Philos.-philol.  CI,  1889, 
65-92  ;  for  Kurdish,  Ijy  Justi's  Kurdische  Grammatik,  St.  Peters- 
burg, 1880,  and  Fr.  Miiller's  study  on  the  Zaza  dialect,  Sifzh.  W.  Ac. 
der  Wiss.,  Phil.-hist.  CI,  xlviii.  227-245.  The  Ossetish  material 
is  drawn  from  Hiibsehmann's  Eiymolocjie  und  Lautlehre  der 
ossetiscJien  Spraclie,  Strassburg,  1887.  I  also  consulted  numerous 
other  works  and  articles  for  minor  points  or  without  results. 

I  follow  Brugmunn's  Grundriss  for  the  Indian  transcription  and 
the  Geiger-Kuhn  Grundriss  for  the  Iranian,  with  a  few  additions 
and  modifications,  which  follow.  Indian  :  m  instead  of  ^ ,  5  instead 
of  s,  and  s  for  s,  also  r,  rh,  I  for  cerebral  r,  rh,  and  I  (1).  In 
Middle  and  New  Indian  I  write  e,  0  before  single  consonants,  but 
c,  0  before  consonant-groups ;  for  Sindhi  I  add,  according  to  the 
system  of  Trumpp  and  the  Royal  Asiatic  Society,  g,  j,  d,  b,  '  uttered 


INTRODUCTION  XV 

with  a  certain  stress  in  prolonging  and  somewhat  strengthening 
the  contact  of  the  closed  organ,  as  if  one  tried  to  double  the  sound 
at  the  beginning  of  a  word '  (Trumpp,  Grammar ^  13) ;  for  Simha- 
lese,  a,  d  have  been  added  according  to  Geiger's  usage,  although 
I  here  transcribe  his  m,  n  by  m.  Iranian  :  I  transpose  the 
functions  of  c  and  c,  and  of  J  and  J,  to  harmonize  with  the  Indian 
system,  so  that  c,  J  denote  palatals,  and  c,  J  afifricatae  ;  for  Afyan 
a  I  write  «,  in  BalucI  i  instead  of  ?",  in  North  BalucT  A/*,  c\  th,  ph 
instead  of  Ji\  c\  t\  p',  and  in  Ossetish  a,  i,  c,  ch,  j,  c,  ch,  j  instead  of 
Hiibschmann's  a,  i,  t§,  tM,  dz,  ts,  ths,  ds.  Socin's  Kurdish  tran- 
scription is  conformed  to  the  regular  Iranian  system  and  compared 
throughout  with  Justi. 

Numerous  parallels  between  the  phonological  phenomena  here 
noted  and  sound-changes  in  other  Indo-Germanic  dialects  will  at 
once  be  perceived.  Thus  the  syncope  of  g  discussed  in  §  147  may 
be  compared  with  the  same  process  in  Attic  iytov  :  Boeotian  Icav  ; 
Attic  oXiyos:  Tarentine  oAio?;  haim Igiivium,  Umbrian  Ikuvinus 
beside  later  liouinur  (cf.  also  §  143)  ;  Latin  regem ;  Old  French 
reij  Modern  French  roi  (cf.  Haag,  Vergleichung  des  PraJcrit  mit 
den  romanisclien  Sprachen,  Berlin,  1869  ;  Brandreth,  JBAS.,  NS. 
xi.  287-316,  xii.  335-364).  Limitations  of  space  prevented  me 
from  referring  to  such  parallel  phenomena  in  dialects  outside  the 
Indo-Iranian.  For  the  same  reason  I  abstained  from  any  extensive 
explanations  by  physiological  phonetics  of  the  sound-changes  which 
I  have  recorded,  and  from  all  discussion  of  inflection  or  syntax. 

Errors  of  detail,  explanation,  and  example  will  undoubtedly  be 
found  in  my  Phonology,  and  I  shall  be  grateful  for  all  corrections 
and  additions.  If,  however,  my  cardinal  theorem  holds  good, 
I  shall  feel  that  the  work  has  been  not  in  vain.  I  trust  that  the 
book  may  serve,  besides  its  main  purpose,  as  a  contribution  towards 
comparative  lexicography  of  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian 
languages,  and  with  this  object  in  view  I  have  cited  examples  from 
as  large  a  number  of  dialects  as  possible.  Throughout  my  work 
I  have  sought  to  present  facts  rather  than  theories.  My  general 
conclusions  in  each  chapter  are  summarized  at  its  beginning  (see 


xvi  INTRODUCTION 

§§  1,  113,  460),  and  every  paragraph  is  introduced  by  the  results  of 
my  study  of  the  material  contained  in  it.  The  deductions  gained 
from  the  entire  book  may  be  summarized  thus  :  the  phono- 
logical tendencies  discernible  as  early  as  in  the  Old 
Indian  and  Iranian  period  have  developed  steadily,  each 
on  its  own  line,  in  the  Middle  and  New  dialects,  and 
through  regular  divergency,  no  less  than  through  simi- 
larity of  evolution,  the  tie  of  Indo-Iranian  unity  is  potent 
still. 

To  Professor  Hopkins  of  Yale  my  thanks  are  due  for  his 
courtesy  in  lending  me  from  his  private  library  certain  works  of 
importance  which  would  otherwise  have  been  inaccessible.  I  am 
indebted  to  the  excellent  reader  of  the  Oxford  University  Press, 
who  has  contributed  in  no  small  degree  by  his  care  to  the  accuracy 
of  the  book.  Especially  do  I  wish  to  express  my  gratitude  to  my 
friend  and  teacher,  Professor  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson,  who  has 
grudged  neither  time  nor  toil  in  his  generous  assistance.  My 
student-life  with  him  for  guru  at  Columbia  University,  where  this 
book  was  written,  will  ever  be  a  happy  memory.  Well  said  the 
Sanskrit  poet : 

eham  apy  dksaram  yas  tu  gtiruh  sisyc  nivedayct 
prthivydm  ndsti  tad  dravyam  yad  datva  so  'nrni  hhavct. 

LOUIS  H.  GRAY. 


XVI 1 


ABBREVIATIONS 


=  North. 

=  Naipali. 

=  Natanzl. 

=  Nayini. 

=  nomen  proprium, 

=  Old  High  German. 

=  Ossetish. 

—  Pai^aci. 

=  Panjabl. 

=  Pazand. 

=  Persian. 

=  Pahlavl. 

=  Prakrit. 

=  Rosam. 

=  Sakari. 

=  Samnani. 

=  Sanglici. 

=  Sariqoli. 

=  Sauraseni. 

=  Siyni. 

=  Singhalese. 

=  SirazT. 

=  Sivendi. 

=  Sanskrit. 

=  Spanish. 

=  Tagaurish. 

=  Talish. 

=  Uriya. 

=  Vonisunl. 

=  West. 

=  Yaynobi. 

=  Younger  Avesta. 

=  Yidgl. 

=  Zafrahl. 


*  =  hypothetical  forms.  >  =  becomes.  <  =  derived  from. 

The  titles  of  Magazines  are  abbreviated  according  to  the  system  of  the 
Orientalischc  Bihliographie. 

b 


Afy. 

=  Afyan. 

N. 

Apab. 

==  Apabhram.sa. 

Naip. 

Ardhamag. 

=  Ardhamagadhi. 

Nat. 

Ass. 

=  Assamese. 

Nay. 

Av. 

=  Avesta. 

nom.  prop. 

Avant. 

=  AvantT. 

0.  H.  Germ. 

Bahb. 

=  Bahbahanl. 

Oss. 

Bal. 

=  Baluci. 

Pais. 

Bang. 

=  Bangali. 

Panj. 

Bui- 

=  Bulgarian. 

Paz. 

Dig. 

=  Digorish. 

Pers. 

E. 

=  East. 

Phi. 

Eng. 

=  English. 

Prak. 

Gab. 

=  Gabrl. 

Ros. 

GAv. 

=  Ga^a-Avesta. 

^ak. 

Gil. 

=  Gilaki. 

Samn. 

Gk. 

=  Greek. 

Sangl. 

Guj. 

=  Gujarat!. 

Sarq. 

^yp- 

=  Gypsy. 

^aur. 

Ind. 

=  Indian. 

Siyn. 

Kaf. 

=  Kafiri. 

Siriih. 

Kas. 

=  Kasanl. 

§Ir. 

Kasm. 

=  Kasmlri. 

Siv. 

Kuhr. 

=  Kuhrudi. 

Skt. 

Kurd. 

=  Kurdish. 

Span. 

Lat. 

=  Latin. 

Tag. 

lexicog. 

=  lexicographical. 

Tal. 

Lith. 

=  Lithuanian. 

Ur. 

Mag. 

=  Magadhi. 

Von. 

Mahar. 

=  Maharastri. 

W. 

Mar. 

=  Marathi. 

Yayn. 

Maz. 

=  Mazandaranl. 

YAv. 

Med. 

=  Median. 

Yidg. 

Minj. 

=  Minjanl. 

Zaf. 

Mult. 

=  Multani. 

LIFE 

I,  Louis  Herbeet  Gr.vy,  was  born  April  10, 1875,  at  Newark, 
New  Jersey,  the  only  child  of  Thomas  Jefferson  and  his  wife, 
Anna  Elizabeth  {nee  Earl).  My  father  is  still  living,  but  my 
mother  died  in  September,  1899.  My  early  education  was  received 
at  home  and  at  the  Newark  Academy,  from  which  I  graduated  in 
1892.  Entering  Princeton  College  the  same  year,  I  received 
the  degree  of  A.B.  in  1896,  and  remained  there  a  year  longer 
as  Fellow  in  Classics,  devoting  special  attention  to  Sanskrit  and 
Avestan,  in  addition  to  Classical  and  Germanic  linguistics.  Feeling 
my  interest  drawn  entirely  to  Oriental  languages,  I  entered  Columbia 
University  in  1897,  where  I  have  remained  three  years.  I  was 
twice  appointed  Fellow  in  Indo-Iranian  and  I  have  pursued  courses 
in  Sanskrit,  Pali,  Avestan,  Old  Persian,  Pahlavi,  New  Persian, 
Armenian,  Arabic,  and  Syriac.  In  1898  I  received  from  Columbia 
the  degree  of  A.M.  I  am  a  member  of  the  American  and  German 
Oriental  Societies,  and  of  the  Twelfth  International  Congress  of 
Orientalists.  I  have  published  '  The  Metres  of  Bhartrihari,'  JAOS., 
XX.  157-159  ;  '  Certain  Parallel  Developments  in  Pali  and  New 
Persian  Phonology,'  ibid.,  229-243 ;  '  Indo-Iranian  Studies,  i.,' 
A  J  Ph.,  xxi.  1-22  ;  '  Contributions  to  Avestan  Syntax,  the  Con- 
ditional Sentence,'  Ann.  N.  Y.  Acad.  Sci.,  xii.  549-588  ;  '  Zur 
indogermanischen  Syntax  von  *ndman,'  IF.,  xi.  307-313 ;  '  The 
Indo-Iranian  Deity  Apam  Napat,'  Arch./.  Beligionsw.,  iii.  18-51  ; 
and  '  Classical  Passages  mentioning  Zoroaster's  Name,'  which  forms 
the  fifth  Appendix  of  Jackson's  Zoroaster,  pp.  226-273  (New  York, 
1899).  I  am  also  one  of  the  regular  contributors  to  the  OrienfaliscJie 
Bihliographie.  Of  my  teachers  my  special  thanks  are  due  to 
Professors  E.  Y.  Robbins  and  J.  P.  Hoskins,  of  Princeton,  and  at 
Columbia  to  Professor  R.  J.  H.  Gottheil,  and  Mr.  Yohannan,  and 
most  of  all  to  Professor  A.  V.  Williams  Jackson. 


INDO-IEANIAN    PHONOLOGY 


VOWELS 

§  1.  The  vowels  of  the  Indo-Iranian  period  have  remained  in 
general  unchanged  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 
But  beside  the  many  instances  of  preservation  of  an  original  vowel, 
there  are  numerous  examples  of  changes  either  in  quantity  or  in 
quality,  or  in  both.  The  most  striking  mutations  will  be  found  in 
the  cases  of  original  a  and  r.  The  reasons  why  these  two  vowels 
are  especially  liable  to  change  are  not  far  to  seek.  Indo-Iranian 
a  =  Indo-Germanic  a,  e,  o,  a  is  the  most  simple  of  all  the  vowels. 
It  represents,  moreover,  the  so-called  '  natural  vowel,'  the  basis  of 
all  articulate  sounds,  which  lies  midway  between  a  and  6  (Sievers, 
Phonetik*,  §  209).  It  is  thus  self-evident  that  the  Indo-Iranian  a 
is  particularly  liable  to  change.  The  changes  in  question  are 
ordinarily  due  to  the  influence  of  surrounding  consonants.  Labials 
often  colour  a  to  u^  and  sibilants  colour  a  to  i.  From  such 
a  change  of  a  to  m,  i,  a  fui-ther  development  to  o,  e,  or  to  m,  I 
may  take  place. 

Turning  to  r,  it  is  well  known  that  of  all  the  Indo-Germanic 
languages  only  the  Old  Indian  and  the  Avesta  have  preserved 
Indo-Germanic  r  imchanged  (Old  Indian  keeping  also  Indo-Ger- 
manic f,  V).  Even  the  Old  Indian  has  lost  Indo-Germanic  ?,  w,  n, 
and  the  Avesta  has  lost  these  sounds  with  Indo-Germanic  f ,  I  in 
addition.  In  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects  we  find 
a  continuation  of  the  process  already  begun  in  the  older  period  by 
which  the  sonant  liquids  and  nasals  lost  their  original  values,  and 
became  coloured  by  the  surromidmg  consonants.    Thus  Old  Indian 

B 


2  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

r,  Avesta  orj,  became  ar,  a,  ra,  ir,  i,  ri,  and  the  like  in  the  Middle 
and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

The  changes  of  the  other  vowels  from  their  values  in  the  Indo- 
Iranian  period  are  not  without  analogy  to  the  changes  of  a  and  r, 
although  they  are  more  sporadic.  Labials  frequently  colour  i  to  m 
as  sibilants  colour  n  to  i.  The  change  of  i,  u  to  a  seems  to  be  due 
to  a  weakening  of  the  old  value  of  ?,  u  to  9. 

The  long  vowels  are  subject  to  changes  which  are,  generally 
speaking,  analogous  to  those  of  the  corresponding  short  vowels. 
Before  two  or  more  consonants  all  vowels,  including  also  the  Old 
Indian  diphthongs,  are  to  be  considered  short  in  the  Middle  and 
New  Indian  dialects.  On  the  other  hand,  the  simplification  of 
a  consonant-group  is  normally  attended,  in  both  the  Indian  and 
the  Iranian  dialects  of  the  Middle  and  New  periods,  by  the  length- 
ening of  a  preceding  short  vowel. 

The  following  paragraphs  will  contain  more  precise  statements 
upon  these  several  points  in  their  proper  places. 

a  =  a. 

^  2.  Indo-Iranian  a  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  hharati  'bears,'  Prak.  hhara'i,  Pali  hharati. 

Skt.  pakva  '  ripe,'  Apab.  Prak.  pakJca,  pikka,  Pali  paJcka,  Ass. 
paka,  Naip.  pak,  Kasm.  papi,  Ur.  pakka,  Bang,  jjaku,  E.  Hindi 
pahal,  Hindi,   Panj.  pakka,   Sindhi  pako,   Guj.    Vpak,    Vpik 

*  ripen,'  Mar.  j;^A;,  pika,  Gyp.  pakO. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  laraiti  'bears,'  Old  Pers.  harati,  Phi.  harat, 
New  Pers.  harad,  Gab.  hartmun,  Kas.  harfan,  Maz.  havardan,  Gil. 
hardan.  Av.  aspa  'horse,'  Old  Pers.  asa,  Phi.,  New  Pers.  asp, 
Waxi  yas,  Minj.  yas{a)p,  Afy.  aspa  (fem.),  Bal.  {h)aps,  Kurd. 
hasp,  Dig.  Oss.  afsa. 

a>i. 

§  3.  This  change  is  not  infrequent,  either  in  the  Indian  or  in 
the  Iranian  dialects.     As  has  been  noted  in  §  1,  the  change  of 


VOWELS  3 

a  to  i  is  due  in  many  cases  to  the  influence  of  a  neighbouring 

sibilant. 

a.  Indian.  In  the  Indian  dialects  a  is  changed  to  i  more 
commonly  in  the  West  than  in  the  East,  so  that  the  Sindhl 
shows  the  greatest  number  of  examples  of  this  phenomenon. 
Tlie  fondness  of  the  Middle  Indian  dialects  for  the  change 
was,  on  the  whole,  greater  than  that  which  is  now  shown  by  the 
New  Indian. 

Skt.  pakva  'ripe,'  Apab.  Prak.  paJcJca,  pikJca,  Guj.  \^paJc, 
Vpik,  'Ksir.piJc,pikd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  ardgdra  'coal,' 
Prak.,  Jaina  Prak.  imgdla,  Guj.  inigdr,  imguJ,  Mar.  imgdl,  imgol. 
Skt.  yafhd  '  how,'  yatra  '  where,'  Apab.  Prak.  jidhd,  jetfhu, 
jattu,  Pali  yaUhd,  yatra,  Sindhl  jifi.  Skt.  dyutaJcara  '  gambler,' 
Sak.  and  Mag.  'Prak.judiala.  Skt.  tamasa  '  darkness,'  Prak.  tama, 
Pali  timisa.  Skt.  pahjara  '  cage,'  Mag.  Prak.  pamjalaa,  Pali 
panjara,  Vr.  pithjira,  Hindi  2) Ini jar,  Sindhi^^mir.  Skt.  ksamd, 
'patience,' Prak.,  Pali  khamd  ^ -patience,'  chamd  'earth,'  Hindi 
chimd,  cJiamd,  Panj.  JcJiimd,  Sindhi  hhimd,  Guj.  khamd.  Skt. 
varkara  '  goat,'  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi  hakard,  Panj.  bakkard,  Sindhl 
hakiro,  Guj.  hakaro,  Mar.  hokar.  Gyp.  hakro.  Skt.  *prathara 
'  first,'  Hindi  pahald,  pahil,  Panj.  paliil,  Guj.  pehelo,  Sindhi 
paharyom,  pahir{y)6)'n.  Skt.  prahara  '  watch,'  Prak.  pahara, 
Panj.  pahir,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  ^a/iar. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dtars  '  fire,'  Phi.  dtas,  New  Pers.  {d)tas,  dtis, 
§iy.  yac,  Sarq.  yuc,  Gab.  tas,  Minj.  yfir,  N.  Bal.  dc,  Kurd,  agir, 
dr,  er,  Zaza  ddir.  Av.  ydkard  '  liver,'  Phi.  jakar,  yakar.  New 
Pers.  jigar,  Bal.  jagar,  N.  Bal.  jayar,  Km-d.  jark.  Dig.  Oss. 
igar.  Av.  sata  'hundred,'  New  Pers.  sad,  ASy.  sal,  sil,  Kurd. 
sad,  Oss.  sada.  Av.  pairi  '  around,'  Old  Pers,  pariy.  Phi.,  New 
Pers.  par,  Bal.  pir  (cf.  Simh.  piri).  Av.  jaini  '  woman,'  Phi., 
New  Pers.  san,  Siy.  yin,  Sarq.  yin,  zin,  Minj.  singa.  Gab.  jaw, 
Kuhr.  zan,  jin,  Zaf.  iaw,  Afy.  jinai,  jilnal,  Bal.  j«w,  Km'd.  zan, 
zin,  Zaza  Jaw.  Av.  anya  '  other,'  Old  Pers.  aniya,  Paz.  7iaw, 
archaic  New  Pers.  hdn,  Oss.  iwwa. 


B   2 


i  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a  >  II. 

§  4.  The  change  of  a  to  u  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian 
dialects  is  a  very  frequent  one.  It  has  been  noted  in  §  1  that 
a  labial  often  colours  an  original  a  to  u. 

a.  Indian.  As  the  change  of  a  to  i  is  more  common  in  the 
western  Indian  dialects  than  in  the  eastern  (see  §  3,  a),  so  the 
change  of  a  to  w  is  more  frequent  in  the  eastern  dialects  of 
India  than  in  the  western,  and  as  a  becomes  i  in  Sindhi,  Gujarat! 
and  Marathi,  so  a  becomes  u  most  often  of  all  in  Uriya  and 
Bangall. 

Skt.  prathama  *  first/  Prak.  pafJmma,  x^udJmma,  pucjhmna, 
padhama,  Pali  pathama.  Skt.  prtlmMva  'peculiarity,'  Jaina 
Prak.  puhutta.  Skt.  manusa  '  man,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of 
Dhauli)  munisa,  manusa.  Skt.  pancavimsati  '■  twenty-five,' 
Pali  pannuvlsati.  Skt.  harhatiTia  '  cuciimber,'  Ur.  Idml'un, 
Bang.  MmJcur,  Hindi  JcaJcari.  Skt.  miidgara  '  club,'  Prak.,  Pali 
mofjgara,  Ur.  mOgarci,  Bang,  mugiir,  Hindi  miigara,  mogara, 
Sindhi  muhiro,  Guj.,  Mar.  mogar.  Skt.  aidguliha  '  finger,'  Apab. 
Prak.  amgulki,  PciVi  aniguliJca,  Naip.  aiimlo,  Bihari  a^'nguri,  Hindi 
umgali,  anigull,  Panj.  umgidl.  Skt.,  Pali  dlianu  'bow,'  Sinili. 
dunu.  Skt.  manurama  '  delightful,'  Simh.  "^manurama-ka  > 
manumaraha  '  grandson,'  New  Simh.  mumdjura.  Skt.  samudra 
'  sea,'  Prak.  samudda,  samudra,  Pali  satnudda,  Siriih.  ^hamiida 
>  ^mahuda  >  muhtida. 

h.  Iranian.  Av.  vand  '  tree,'  Plil.  van,  New  Pers.  htm,  Kas, 
bana,  Afy.  vana,  Bal.  gvan,  Dig.  Oss.  bun.  Tag.  bin.  Phi.  x^atai 
'  God,'  New  Pers.  xuddi,  Siy.,  Sarq.  qtidd,  Kurd,  xade,  xude. 
Av.  savaite  '  goes,'  Old  Pers.  asiyavam,  New  Pers.  savad,  Afy. 
sval,  Bal.  suta,  N.  Bal.  mbd,  su6d,  Kurd,  clan,  Oss.  caiin.  Av. 
caOtvdro  '  four,'  Phi.  cahdr,  Paz.  cihdr.  New  Pers.  cahdr,  Wax! 
cabur,  cahiir,  oiy.  cavor,  cavar,  Sarq.  cavur,  cavor,  Sangl.  safor, 
Afy.  calor,  Kurd.  (Sihna)  cavar,  Dig.  Oss.  cuphxyhar,  Tag.  ciphijhar. 
Av.  pasu  '■  cattle,'  Wax!  pus,  Afy.  psa,  Bal.  pas,  N.  Bal.  phas, 
Kurd,  pas,  Dig.   Oss.  fas,  Tag.  ^^6-.     Av.    Vx^'an  '  call,'  Phi. 


VOWELS  5> 

x^antand,  New  Pers.  x''amlan,  WaxI  l-andam,  Siy.  kmdam, 
Sarq,  mndam,  Bal.  vdnag,  N.  Bal.  vdnay,  Kurd,  x^dndin,  xundin, 
Oss,  iCM»«d  Av.  tarsna  '■  thirst,'  Phi,  if«^»,  tisnak{th),  New  Pers. 
^il,  Siy.  fama{g~i),  Sarq.  ^rtr(i),  Gab.  tasna,  Yidg.  trusna,  Afy. 
toi«i,  Bal.  tiinnag,  tilnag. 

a  >  a. 

§  5.  Tlie  change  of  «  to  a  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian 
dialects  is  due  in  the  great  majority  of  instances  to  compensatory 
lengthening,  as  noted  in  §  1.  Sporadic  cases  of  inorganic  length- 
ening of  an  original  a  are  not  infrequent. 

a.  Indian.  In  the  New  Indian  dialects  Bangali  prefers  the 
long  vowel  by  compensatory  lengthening  before  a  simplified 
consonant-group,  while  Panjabi  and  Sindhi  show  short  vowels, 
the  Panjabi  having  a  repeated  consonant  and  the  Sindhi  a  single 
one.  Hindi  stands  midway  between  the  two  extremes  in  this 
regard.  Tlie  Braj  dialect  of  Hindi  is  especially  fond  of  changing 
a  to  a,  and  it  is  followed  here  by  its  sister  dialects,  the  Mar- 
warl,  Maiwarl,  and  Kanauji.  In  Marathi  the  root-vowel  of  the 
infinitive  is  frequently  lengthened. 

Skt.  sanirddhi  'prosperity,'  Prak.  sdmiddhi,  Pilli  samiddhi. 
Skt.  sarsapa  *■  mustard,'  Jaina  Prak.  sdsava,  Pali  sdsapa.  Skt. 
sparsana  'touch,'  Frak.  phdsa,  Pali  ^^/^a^^a.  Skt.  pradaJcsina 
'  pertaining  to  the  right  hand,'  Gatha  prddaksina.  Skt.  pahva 
'  ripe,'  Naip.  ^^a/j.  Bang.  pdM,  E.  Hindi  pdkal,  etc.  (see  §  2). 
Skt.  vatsa  '  calf,'  Prak.,  Pali  vaccha,  Ass.  hdcni  (pron.  hdsrn), 
Kasm.  VUG,  Ur.  hdclmri,  Bang,  vdcchd,  hdccd,  E.  Hindi  hack, 
Hindi  hacharu,  hachard,  Panj.  haccd,  Sindhi  hdco,  Guj.  haccu,  Mar. 
bacrem,  vdsrum.  Skt.  Jchafvd  'bedstead,'  Prak.  khattd,  Ur.  khafa, 
Bang.  khdt{ald),  Hindi  khtit,  Panj.  khattj  Sindhi  kJiaf,  Guj.,  Mar. 
khdt.  Skt.,  Pali  kacchapa  '  tortoise,'  Ur.  kachima,  Bang.  kdcJiiwa, 
Hindi,  Panj.  kachtJd,  Sindlil  kacluim.  Skt.  caJana  'course,'  Ur. 
cdlibd,  Braj  cdlandum,  Hindi  caland,  Mar.  cdlanem.  Skt.  satya 
*  true,'  Prak.,  Pali  sacca,  Ur,,  Bang,  sara,  Braj  same,  Hindi  sac, 
Panj.  sacc,  Sindhi  saco,  Guj.,  Mar.  sac.     Skt.  nagna  '  naked,' 


(5  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Prak.,  Pali  nagga,  Ur.  namgald,  Bang,  nemtd,  Hindi  nanigd, 
E.  Panj.  nahigd,  W.  Panj.  ndtdgd,  SindhT  nmhgo,  Guj.  ndgimi, 
Mar.  iimiigd,  naggd. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  nahha  '  finger-nail,'  Phi.,  New  Pers,  ndxun, 
Afy.  >2?7/t,  Bal.  ndkun,  ndhun,  Kurd,  nainuk.  Skt.  parut  'last 
year,'  New  Pers.  ^;ar,  WaxI  ^Jan7,  Sarq.  parvus,  Afy.  paros,  Bal. 
^arl,  N.  Bal.  phdri,  Dig.  Oss.  y«)*a,  Tag.  faron.  Av.  Iiazmjru 
'thousand,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  Jiamr,  WaxI  hazur,  Sarq.  hazor, 
Afy.  ^ar,  Kurd.  Jiazdr.  Av.  ^(^i^ra  '  dark,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  tar, 
Minj.  tardvi,  Afy.  for,  Dig.  Oss.  thalinga,  Tag.  thaling.  Av. 
va/m  '  snow,'  Phi.  va/>",  New  Pers.  irt)/,  Gab.,  Kas.,  Maz.,  Gil. 
varf,  Afy.  vdvra.  Av.  mardta  '  man,'  Old  Pers.  niartiya,  Phi. 
«iar/.  New  Pers.  mard,  Gab.  mdrd,  Siv.  ««;yZ,  Bal.  ?>«ar,  Kurd, 
wiir,  mer.  Phi.  Zo^^  '  lip,'  New  Pers.  lab,  WaxI,  Sang,  lav,  Gab. 
lav.  Av.  sarota  '  cold,'  Plil.  sarf,  New  Pers.  sa>T7,  WaxI  siir{i), 
Gab.  5a>"f,  Afy.  5ar,  Bal.  sard,  N.  Bal.  5arf/i,  Kurd,  sdr,  Tag.  Oss. 
saZc?.  Av.  asjici  *  horse,'  Old  Pers.  asa,  Bal.  {h)a2)s,  etc.  (see  §  2). 
Av.  pascat  '  afterward,'  Old  Pers,  j>a5a.  Phi.  pasi^in).  New  Pers. 
^;a5,  Kulir.  pas,  pas,  Kas.  jjac,  Bal.  pas,  Kurd,  pasva,  past,  Dig. 
Oss.  fastaga.  Tag.  fastag.  Skt.  svasrii  '  mother-in-law,'  New 
Pers.  xusru,  xusii,  WaxI,  Siy.  xas,  Kas.  xasrtl,  Afy.  x'^dsa,  Bal. 
vasso,  vassi,  vasse,  Kurd,  .^;os^,  xassu,  xasru. 

a  >  I. 

§  6.     This  change  is  a  very  rare  one. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  jalnl  '  woman,'  Sarq.  yin,  zin,  etc.  (see  §  3). 

a  >  u. 

§  7.     This  change  is  closely  akin  to  the  one  described   in  the 
preceding  paragraph. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  vafsa  '  calf,'  Kasm.  vile,  etc.  (see  §  5). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  jaint  *  woman,'  Afy.  jinal,  jiinal,  etc.  (see 
§  3).  Av.  tarsna  '  thirst,'  Bal.  tunnag,  timag,  etc.  (see  §  4). 
Av.  maibyqna  '  middle,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  mlydn.  Wax!  malting. 


VOWELS 


Siy.  mabana,  Sarq.  nieb,  Sangl.  mlda,  Afy.  mla,  Dig.  Oss,  medag, 
Tag.  mtdag.     New  Pers,  namak  '  salt,'  Siy.  Sir.  mmik. 


a  >  c. 

§  8.  This  change  is  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence.  It  is  due 
very  frequently  to  the  palatalizing  influence  of  a  neighbouring  y. 

a.  Indian.  In  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects  e  is  long 
only  before  single  consonants  :  before  a  consonant-group  it  is 
to  be  considered  short.  Of  the  New  Indian  dialects  Panjabi 
and  GujaratI  show  the  greatest  number  of  examples  of  the 
change  of  a  to  e.  The  intermediate  step  of  the  change  from 
a  to  e  is  shown  by  the  change  of  a  to  ci  in  Simhalese,  or  by  the 
Mariithi  di  developed  from  Indian  a  (the  reverse  of  the  Panjabi 
change  of  Old  Indian  ai  to  a). 

Skt.  ascarya  '  wonderful,'  Prak.  acchera,  accharia,  acchaara, 
accharijja,  Pali  accharia,  acchera,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi  acaraj. 
Skt.  sayya  'bed,'  Prak.  sejja,  Pali  seyyci,  Hindi  sej,  Mar.  scj. 
Skt.  trayddasa  '  thirteen,'  Prak.  teraha,  Pali  tedasa,  terasa,  telasa, 
Kasm.  triivdh,  Ur.,  Bang,  teraha,  Bihari,  Hindi  teraJi,  W.  Hindi 
Ura,  Panj.  teram,  Sindhi  teraham,  Guj.  ter,  Mar.  ferd,  Siihh. 
teles.  Skt. phalgu  'empty,'  Fali pheggu.  Skt.  sandhi  'burglar's 
mine,'  Prak.,  Pali  sandhi,  Ass,  sindhi,  Kasm.  san,  Ur.,  Bang. 
sindh,  E.  Hindi  scmh,  Hindi  senidh,  Panj.  sannh,  Sindhi  semdlii. 
Mult,  sandh.  Skt.  laharl  'wave,'  Hindi  lahar,  Panj.  lahir,  Guj. 
leher.  Skt.  hadhira  '  deaf,'  Prak.  hahira,  Hindi,  Panj.  hahird, 
Guj.  lieher,  Simh.  hihira.  Skt,  Icapdta  '  door,'  Pali  kavdta,  Ur., 
Bang,  kahdta,  Bihar.  kevdr{d),  Hmdl,  Panj.,  Mar.  kavdd. 

Skt.  asti  'eight,'  Prak.,  Pali  attha,  Kasm.,  Ur.,  Bihari,  Hmdl 
dth,  Panj.  atth,  Sindhi  afh,  Guj.,  Mar.  dth,  Siihh.  dta.  Skt. 
madhya  '  middle,'  Prak.,  Pali  majjha.  Ass.  mdj,  Kasm.  mamz, 
Ur.  majhi.  Bang,  mdjh,  Hindi  majhi,  nidnijh,  mamh,  Panj,  manijh, 
majjh,  Sindhi  mamjhi.  Mar,  mdjh,  Simh,  mdda,  inscriptions 
mdnda.     Skt,,  Prak.  jawa  'person,'  Simh.  dcna,  dana. 

Skt.  vaidgana  'egg-plant,'   Ur.  bdigu.   Bang,    begun,    Hindi 


8  JXDO-IRAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

hdimgan,  Panj.  hdiham,  Mar.  hdimgan.  Skt.  saptacaivarimsat 
'forty-seven/  K^m.  satatajih,  Ur.  satcdlisa,  Bang,  satcalls, 
Bihar.,  Hindi  sdimtdlis,  Panj.  samtdll,  Sindhl  satetallh,  Guj. 
sudtdlls^  Mar.  sattecdlis. 

b.  Iranian.  The  change  of  Indo-Iranian  a  to  e  is  very  rare  in 
the  Iranian  dialects,  excepting  in  the  Kurdish.  In  the  Zaza 
dialect  of  the  Kurdish  the  Iranian  a  is  often  pronounced  di. 

Sanin,  du  verbal  prefix,  Maz.  da,  Gil.  da,  du,  di,  Afy,  da, 
Kurd,  de,  da,  Oss.  fi-.  Av.  \/Jcards  ^  drag,'  Phi.  Jca^itano,  Afy. 
ksal,  Bal.  hasag,  N.  Bal.  khasay,  Kurd,  kehdn,  Jcisdn.  Old  Pers. 
martiya  'man,'  Kurd,  mir,  mer,  etc.  (see  §  5).  Av.  xsva$ti 
'  sixt}'-,'  New  Pers.  sast,  sast,  Afy.  §2^efa,  Kurd.  §aM.  Av.  tarsti 
'  flight,'  Afy.  testa.  Av.  x^atdhar  '  sister,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  x^'dhar. 
WaxI  xi-ui,  Sarq.  yax\  Sangl.  ix^va,  Minj.  yaxh-a,  Afy.  xor,  Bal. 
gvaJmr,  Kurd,  xoh,  xuha,  TaOzbl  vai,  Oss.  xora.  Av.  asfa  '  eight,' 
Phi.  (}i)ast.  New  Pers.  haH,  WaxI  hdO,  hat,  Siy.  vast,  Sarq.  vo^^, 
Eos.  hast,  Sangl.  hat,  Minj.  a^/ja,  Yayn.  uxs,  Afy.  ato,  Zaza 
haist,  Oss.  as^/i. 

a  >  y. 

§  9.  This  change,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  not  of  frequent 
occurrence  either  in  the  Indian  or  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  It  is  well  known  that  the  common  pronunciation 
of  an  original  a  approaches  6  in  Assamese,  Uriya,  and  Bangall. 
The  change  of  a  to  o  is  most  common  in  Uriya  and  Bangall, 
and  in  Simhalese  it  often  occurs  near  I  developed  from  a  cerebral 
or  dental. 

Skt.  hadura  'jujube  tree,'  Prak,  t^um,  Pali  hadara,  Ur.  hara 
(pron.  hard).  Bang,  hair,  Hindi,  Panj.  hair,  her,  Sindlil  heru, 
heri,  Guj.,  Mar.  hdr.  Skt.  sammarsa  '  confusion,'  Pali  satmmsa. 
Skt.  varkara  'goat,'  Mar.  hokar,  etc.  (see  §  3).  Skt.  smasru 
*  moustache,'  Prak.  mdsu,  massii,  mamsii,  Pali  massu.  Ass.  tmc, 
Ur.,  Bang.,  Bihar,  mdmch,  Hindi  much,  Panj.  mucch,  Sindhi 
much,  Guj.  much.  Skt.  caksu  '  eye,'  Prak.,  Pali  cakkim.  Bang. 
cokh,  cdukh.     Skt.  cahcu  'beak,'   Bang.    cOmtha,   Hindi,   Mar. 


VOWELS  9 

come.  Skt.  ekddasa  '  eleven,'  Prak.  car  alia,  Pali  cJcddasa,  Kasm. 
Mh,  Ur.,  Bang,  egdra,  E.  Hindi  cgydrah,  Hindi  igdrah,  gydrah, 
Panj.  gidram,  Sindhi  ihdrahmh,  ydraham,  Guj.  agidr,  Mar. 
aJcard.  Skt. pH]i{})vJ '  earth,'  Prak. pmlhavi, puha{v)t,  Pali J9a#/iav«, 
pathavi.  Old  Hindi  j;m/<imw-/,  Siriili.  j;o/ai'a. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  mabu  '  mead,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  mai,  Kurd. 
7ndf,  Oss.  mud,  mid.  Av.  asrw  Hear,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  ars, 
Kas.  asl,  Maz.  asr,  Afy.  osa,  Bal.  a?5.  Av.  panca  '  five,'  Phi. 
j)awc,  New  Yevs.  panj,  Y^Sisl  pdnz,  Siy.,  Sarq.  jjiWvS",  Sangl.  ^aw^, 
Minj.  pane,  Yidg.  ^aw5,  Samn.  punj,  Afy.  pinja,  Kurd,  ^awj, 
penj,  Oss.  /o??^'.  Skt.  Vdam  'tame,'  New  Pers.  ddm  'domestic 
animal,'  Oss.  domun  '  to  tame.' 

a  >  ail. 

§  10.  This  change  is  excessively  rare  both  in  the  Indian  and  in 
the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  eaksu  'eye,'  Bang,  colih,  edukh,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §,  a). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pacata  '  cooked,'  Phi.  puoctano,  New  Pers. 
puxtan,  WaxI  poeam,  Gab.  paxtmun,  Kas.  paten,  Maz.  paxta, 
Afy.  p)dxavid,  Bal.  paeag,  N.  Bal.  pJiasay,  Kurd,  pdtin,  Zaza 

paujana,  Oss.  Jicun. 

Aphaeresis  of  a. 

§  11.  Tlie  loss  of  an  initial  a  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo- 
Iranian  dialects  is  not  imcommon. 

a.  Indian.  Aphaeresis  of  a  in  the  Indian  dialects  is  especially 
frequent  when  the  initial  vowel  is  unaccented  and  is  followed  by 
an  accented  syllable. 

Skt.  alaidkdra  'adornment,'  Prak.  alandcdra,  alarkJcia,  Pali 
lamkdra,  Elu  lakara.  Skt.  adJias  'below,'  Prak.  Jieftha,  Pali 
hetthd,  Ur.,  Bang,  hetha,  Sindhi  hethe,  Guj.  liethe.  Mar.  liet.  Skt. 
avatrdna  'rescue,'  Ur.  haedibd.  Bang,  hdcdn,  Hindi  haedmnd, 
Mar.  vacdvinem.  Skt.  aranya  'forest,'  Mahar.  Prak.  raytna, 
Saur.  Prak.  aranna,  Pali  arahha,  Old  Hindi  ramj,  Hindi  ran, 


10  IXDO-TRAXTAN  PHONOLOGY 

Sindhi  rihy  rinn,  Guj.,  Mar.  ran,  Simh.  rana.  Skt.  amdftja 
'minister,'  Prak.,  Pali  amacca,  Simh.  mttti.  Skt.,  Pali  atasl 
'  linseed,'  Kasm.  alls,  Ur.  test,  Bang,  tist,  Hindi  tls%  alsi.  Skt. 
asoka  'sort  of  tree,'  Prak.  asoa,  Pali  asoka,  Simh.  ho.  Skt. 
annraga  '  love,'  Prak.  anuraa^  Simh.  wwra.  Skt.  ayafa  '  ditch,' 
Siihli.  vala. 

b.  Iranian.  In  New  Persian  it  is  a  law  that  initial  a  before 
a  single  consonant  is  dropped. 

Av.  angusta  'finger,'  Phi.  angust,  New  Pers.  angust,  WaxI 
ijangl,  Siy.  anga^t,  Sarq.  ungaxt,  Sangl.  ingit,  Minj.  angar,  Si  v. 
gus,  Von.  unguss,  Maz.  anguSj  Afy.  (jr^lto,  Oss.  angursth,  cf.  also 
New  Pers.  angustar  '  ring,'  Km-d.  gustir.  Av.  asdnga  '  stone,' 
Old  Pers.  adqgaina,  Phi.,  New  Pers.  5a?i</.  Av.,  Old  Pers. 
a^c?«  '  knowledge,'  Afy.  sda.  Av.  o^^as  '  open,'  Phi.  ajMC,  a2)aj, 
Paz.  awd3,  aivd^,  New  Pers.  fca^,  WaxI  vds,  Sarq.  vm^,  Bal.  pac, 
Kurd.  vd£l.  Av.  ahmdka  '  ours,'  Old  Pers.  amdxam  '  of  us,' 
Paz.  e»ia.  New  Pers.  md,  Oss.  »wa^.  Av.  aparandyii  '  boy,'  Phi. 
apurndyak,  New  Pers.  hurnd,  barnd,  Afy,  vo/-.  Av.,  Old  Pers. 
asman  '  heaven,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  dsmdu,  Gab.  ashdn,  Maz.  sa>«a, 
Bal.  dsmdn,  N,  Bal.  azmdn. 

Sijncope  of  a. 

§  12.  The  syncope  of  internal  a  is  foimd  occasionally  both  in 
the  Indian  imd  in  the  Iranian  chalects. 

a.  Indian.  Syncope  of  Indo-Iranian  a  is  quite  rare  in  the 
New  Indian  dialects,  and  it  is  rarer  still  in  the  Middle  Indian 
period.  Entire  syncope  of  an  original  a  is  often  preceded  by 
the  weakening  of  a  to  the  so-called  'neutral  vowel'  d,  in  case  a  is 
unaccented  but  is  preceded  or  followed  by  an  accented  syllable. 

Skt.  pugaphala  '  areca-nut,'  Prak.  popphala  <  *pugphala,  Guj, 
p6p>hal,  Mar.  pophal.  Skt.  jdgaraf I  'watches,'  Frak.  jdgga'i,  Pali 
jaggati,  \Jr.  jdgand,  Bang.jdgitc,  Sinclhijdganu,  Guj. jdgarum,  Mar. 
jdganeni.  Skt.  durhala  'weak,' Prak,,  Pali  duhhala.  Bang,  duhld, 
Biharl  duhara,  dilbar,  Hindi  duhld,  Sindhi  duhiro,  rahalo,  Guj. 


VOWELS  11 

dnbal{a),  Mar.  dnhal.  Skt.  cCimara  'fly-whisk,'  Prak.,  Pali  camara, 
Bang,  camrd,  Hindi  cdmhrl,  Mar.  cdmar,  cdiiri,  Anglo-Ind.  chowry. 

b.  Iranian.  Syncope  of  Indo-Iranian  a  is  more  common  in 
the  Iranian  than  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

Av.  yasatanqni  *  of  the  angels,'  Phi.  yaztdn,  yd^ddn,  New 
Pers.  yazddn  'God.'  Av.  paOana  'broad,'  Phi.  palm{di),  Afy. 
2)ldn,  Bal.  patan,  Kurd,  j>a*^,  Oss.  fdthan.  Av.  axsaena  '  blue,' 
Pill.,  New  Pers,  ocas'in,  Afy.  sm  but  fern,  ma,  Kurd.  {ha)s'm,  Oss. 
axsinag.  Av.  ndmah  '  homage,'  Plil.  namdc,  Paz.  namdl,  New 
Pers.  namdz,  Afy.  nmunj,  Bal.  nanids,  navds,  Kurd.  nimi{z)j 
namm,  nameL  Av.  vtsalti  '  twenty,'  Plil.  vist,  New  Pers.  Ijistj 
Kas.  v'lstdj  vts{sd),  Afy.  vtst,  Bal.  ^J6f. 

Apocope  of  a. 

§  13.  The  apocope  of  Indo-Iranian  a  is  a  very  frequent  phe- 
nomenon in  the  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  The  Middle  Indian  dialects  retain  the  final  a  un- 
changed. In  the  New  Indian  the  final  a  of  the  Old  and  Middle 
Indian  dialects  is  cbopped  unless  it  bears  the  accent.  If  final 
a  is  accented  it  is  lengthened  in  Hindi.  In  Ur.  and  Bang,  on 
the  other  hand  final  a  is  often  pronounced. 

Skt.  mudgara  '  club,'  Prak.,  Pali  moggam,  Ur.  mogard,  Bang. 
mugura,  Hindi  nmgard,  mogard,  Sindhi  muhird,  Guj.,  Mar.  mdgar. 
Skt.  satya  '  true,'  Prak.,  Pali  sacca,  Ur.,  Bang,  sacd,  Braj  sdmc, 
Hindi  sac,  Panj.  sacc,  Smdlil  saco,  Guj.,  Mar.  sac.  Skt.  trayodasa 
'  tliirteen,'  Prak.  teraha,  Pali  tcdasa,  terasa,  telasa,  Kasm.  truvdh, 
Ur.,  Bang.  teraJia,  Biharl,  Hindi  terah,  W.  Hindi  terd,  Panj. 
terdm,  Sindhi  teraJiam,  Guj.  tcr,  Mar.  terd,  Simli.  teles. 

b.  Iranian.  The  Middle  Iranian  dialects,  milike  the  Middle 
Indian,  do  not  retain  original  final  a.  The  New  Iranian  dialects 
follow  the  Middle  Iranian  in  this  regard,  but  the  Digaurian 
Ossetish  often  retains  the  final  a  unchanged. 

Av.  dardya  'long,'  Old  Pers.  darga,  Phi.  darg,  Af/.  Idrya, 
Kurd.,  Oss.  darg.     Old  Pers.  tigra  '  sharp,'  Phi.  tcj,  Paz.  ^ei, 


12  lynornAxiAN  phoxology 

New  Pers.  trs,  WaxI  tis,  Sarq.  ta'iz,  Kurd,  tlz{l).  Av.  sar,ila 
'year,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sid,  Dig.  Oss.  sanJa,  Tag.  .sa^xZ.  Av. 
dasa  *  ten,'  Phi.  dahum  '  tenth,'  New  Pers.  f/a/i  '  ten,'  WaxI  has, 
las,  oiy.  bis,  Us,  Sarq.  8a5,  Sangl.,  Yayn.  das,  Afy.  Zas,  Oss.  das. 

Prothesis  of  a. 
§  14.  Prothesis  of  a  is  not  found  in  the  Middle  period  either  of 
the  Indian  or  of  the  Iranian  dialects.  In  New  Indian  the  collo- 
quial Hindi  prefixes  a  to  words  beginning  \\ath  a  consonant-group 
whose  first  member  is  s.  In  the  New  Persian  prothesis  is  one  of 
the  most  common  phenomena,  since  in  that  language  no  word  may 
begin  with  a  consonant-group.  Prothesis  of  a  is  also  quite  common 
in  Balucl. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sndna  '  bath,'  colloquial  Hindi  asnan.  Skt. 
stlidna  'place,'  colloquial  Hindi  asthan.  Skt.  stri  'woman,' 
colloquial  Hindi  astn  or  istrl  (see  below,  §  36). 

Tliis  prothesis  is  also  found  in  foreign  loan-words,  such  as 
Eng.  school,  colloquial  Hindi  ashid,  isJall. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hrvat  'brow,'  Phi.  hrfi,  New  Pers.  ahru, 
Wax!  varao,  Siy.  truy,  Sarq.  varao,  Sangl,  vurij,  Gab.  hurd, 
Afy,  vruja,  Bal.  Imrvdn,  hirvdn,  Kurd,  hunl,  hurl,  Dig.  Oss. 
arfuk,  Tag.  arfig.  Av.  stard  '  star,'  Phi.  sfdraJc,  New  Pers. 
sitarah,  Afy.  storai,  Bal,  astdr,  istdr,  Kurd,  isfirJc,  Oss,  stall. 
Av,,  Old  Pers,  hrdtar '  brother,'  Phi.  hrdtar,  New  Pers.  birddar, 
WaxI  vrilt,  Siy,  vrod,  virdd,  Sarq,  vrod,  Afy.  vwr,  Bal.  hrdi, 
Kurd,  hard,  Dig.  Oss.  arvdda,  Tag.  arvdd. 


d  =  a. 
§  15,     Indo-Iranian  d  is  generally  retained  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects  of  all  periods, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhurayatl  '  holds,'  Pali  dhdrcti.  Skt. 
vi/dghra  '  tiger,'  Prak.  vagyha,  Pali  vyagyha,  Hindi  hdgh,  Smdlii 
vaghu. 

b.  Iranian.     A  v.  vdiU  '  canal,'  WaxI  vdh,  Siy.  veh,  Sarq.  mS, 


VOWELS  13 

Av.  paha  '  foot,'  Phi.  pdi,  New  Pers.  pai,  WaxI  pub,  §iy.  pab, 
Sangl.  pud,  Gil.  po,  Tat  pa,  Bal.  ^a(?,  N.  Bal.  phab,  phaz.  Av. 
^afw  'place,'  Old  Pers.  gaOu,  Phi.  r/«.v,  New  Pers.  giXh,  Afy. 
ya?a2.  Av.  ahmdlia  'ours,'  Old  Pers.  amdxam  'of  us,'  New 
Pers.,  Kurd,  md,  Oss.  max. 

a  >  a. 

§  16.  The  shortening  of  an  original  a  is  the  most  frequent 
change  of  all  those  to  which  this  sound  is  subject,  whether  in  the 
Indian  or  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  It  is  well  known  that  the 
doubling  of  an  original  single  consonant  or  the  retention  of  an 
original  consonant-group  causes  a  preceding  long  vowel  to  become 
short  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects.  Beside  the 
regular  shortening  of  original  a  mider  the  conditions  just  described 
there  are  numerous  instances  of  sporadic  shortening  of  original  d. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vydghra  '  tiger,'  Prak.  vaggJia,  Pah  vyagglia, 
Hindi  hdgh,  Sindlii  vdgli.  Skt.  mdrgasira  'November-Decem- 
ber,' Apab.  Prak.  maggasiru,  Pali  mdgasira,  maggasira.  Skt. 
upasthdpitva  'having  estabhshed,'  Gatha  upasfhapitva.  Skt. 
devdlaya  '  temple,'  Ur.  deula,  Bang.,  Hindi  deval,  Panj.  devdld, 
Sindlil  devali,  Guj.  deval,  Mar.  deval,  deul.  Skt.  mdrga  '  road,' 
Apab.  Prak.  maggu,  Pali  magga,  Hindi  mag,  mdmgd,  Sindhi 
mdgu,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  mag.  Skt.  mahdrgha  'costly,' 
Pali  mahaggJia,  Ass.  mahamga,  Naip.  mahamgo,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi 
mahamgd,  Panj.  mahimgd,  Sindhi  maJianigo,  Guj.  morhgJmm, 
Mar.  mahdg.  Skt.  Jchddati  '  eats,'  Prak.  khd^,  Pah  hhddati, 
Naip.  Jcha'ihdm,  Kasm.  khyun,  Ur.  Jchdnd,  Bang.  Tchdite,  Sindhi 
Jchainu,  Guj.  Jchdvum,  Mar.  Jclidnem,  Siihh.  hanavd.  Gyp.  cJia. 
Skt.  hhdgineya  '  sister's  son,'  Mahar.  Prak.  hhdginejja,  Pali 
bhdgineyya,  Simh.  bdhdnd,  hdnd.  Skt.  grdma  '  village,'  Prak., 
Pali  gdma,  Ur.,  Bang,  gam,  Hindi  gdmv,  Sindhi  gdmu,  gd{m)u, 
Guj.  gdm.  Mar.  gdmv,  Simh.  garni.  Gyp.  gav. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  JcahrJcdsa  'vulture,'  Phi.  J^ahrl'ds,  Jcargds, 
New  Pers.  Jcargas.     Av.  ydna  'path,'  New  Pers.  ydti,  Afy.  yiin. 


14  JXDO-IRAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Skt.  lujx'isa  '  fox/  Phi.  rd2)as,  ivhds,  New  Pers.  ruhdh,  Sarq. 
rape,  Ks&.  rilvds,  Tal.  rvos,  N.  Bal.  ropJiasl;  Kurd,  rfivi,  Dig. 
Oss.  rohas,  Tag.  ritbas.  Skt.  a?>/td  '  glory  '  +  tdjja  '  heat,'  New 
Pers.  aftdh  '  sun,'  Siy.,  Sarq.  aftav,  Kurd,  dtaf,  So  axtdv,  ataf\ 
adav,  Bohtan  tdv.  Av.  spdha  '  army,'  Phi.  s;;a//.  New  Pers. 
sipdh,  Dig.  Oss.  afsdd,  Tag.  afsad.  Phi.,  New  Pers.  arcZ  '  meal,' 
Casp.  dialects  or,  Nay.  ar,  Afy.  ora. 

d  >  %. 
§  17.     The  change  of  a  to  I  occm*s  very  rarely. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  lojJdsa  '  fox,'  Kurd,  ruvi,  etc.  (see  preceding 
§).  Phi.,  New  Pers.  darmdn  '  medicine,'  Siy.,  Sarq.  darmin. 
Old  Pers.  amdnaya  'remained,'  Phi.,  Paz.,  New  Pers.  mdndan, 
Kurd,  minim  *  I  remain.' 

a  >  u. 
§  18.  The  change  of  a  to  m  is  excessively  rare  in  the  Middle 
and  New  Indian  dialects.  In  the  New  Persian  and  its  dialects  as 
well  as  in  numerous  sporadic  instances  in  the  other  Iranian  dialects 
d  is  changed  to  u  before  7n  and  n,  as  e  is  changed  to  «  under  the 
same  circumstances  (see  §  89). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  karpdsa  *■  cotton,'  Ur.  Icapd,  Bang.  Jcdpds, 
Hindi  Jcapds,  Panj.  hapah,  Sindhi  Tcapdh,  Guj.,  Mar.  kdpus, 
Simli.  Jcajm.     Skt.  sdsnd  '  paunch,'  Prak.  sunJiu. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  mnu  *  knee,'  Phi.  mniik,  New  Pers.  zdnu, 
Wax!  zdn,  Sarq.  zun,  Sangl.  song,  Judaeo-Pers.  zunl,  mm,  Afy. 
zangum,  Bal.  zdn,  Kurd.  zdna.  Av.  rdna  '  thigh,'  Phi.,  New 
Pers.  ran,  Siy.  run,  Afy.  vrun.  Phi.  ydjnaJc,  jdmak  '  robe,'  New 
Pers.  jdmah,  Nay.  yiimu,  Kurd.  yuma.  Av.  cadwdrd  'four,' 
Phi.,  New  Pers.  calidr,  WaxI  cahur,  Siy.  cavor,  cavar,  Sarq. 
caviir,  cavor,  Sangl.  safur,  Minj.  caflr,  Yidg.  clr,  Afy.  calOr, 
Kurd.  (Sihna)  cavdr,  Dig.  Oss.  cuplqihar,  Tag.  ciphphar.  Av. 
tdrdsaiti  '  fears,'  Old  Pers.  tarsatly,  Phi.  tarsUano,  New  Pers. 
tarsdn  '  cowardly,'  Bal.  trusag,  N.  Bal.  iursay,  Kurd.  tarsmiaJc, 
Oss.  tharsun. 


VOWELS  15 


d  >  e. 


§  19.     The  change  of  a  to  e  is  one  of  excessive  rarity  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  In  Assamese  and  colloquial  Bangali  the  change 
of  a  to  c  is  not  infrequent. 

Skt.  mdtra  '  measure,'  Prak.  metfa,  Pali  matfa.  Skt.  sthdpayati 
*■  estabhshes,'  Mar.  thevanem.  Skt.  dm  *  hope,'  Mahar.  Prak. 
dsd,  Ass.  esd,  dsd.  Skt.  rdtrt  '  night,'  Prak.  ratti.,  rai,  Pah  ratti, 
Ur.,  Bang.,  Bihar.  rdi{i),  Hindi  rdt,  Panj,  rati,  rdt,  Sindhl  rati, 
Guj.,  Mar,  rdt,  Simh.  rd,  ray  a.  Skt.,  Pali  dloha  '  appearance,' 
Siihh.  eliya,  alu. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  tcv  '  strength,'  beside  tdv.  Phi.  vamr 
'market-place,'  New  Pers.  hdzdr,  Gab.  ■yyar,  Kas.  hosor,  vojor, 
Kurd,  hd^er,  Eng.  loan-word  bazaar. 


a  >  0. 

§  20.  Tlie  change  of  a  to  o  seems  not  to  be  found  in  the  Indian 
dialects.  In  the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  not 
infrequent.  The  change  is  especially  frequent  in  MazandaranT 
and  Tahsh,  and  in  Afyan  a  regularly  becomes  o,  excepting  before 
nasals,  where  the  change  is  to  u  (cf.  §  18  above).  It  is  also  to  be 
noted  that  in  New  Persian  itself  the  pronmiciation  of  a  often 
tends  to  approach  the  value  of  o. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vdta  '  wind,'  Phi.  vdf.  New  Pers.  lad.  Gab. 
vdd,  Siv.  vdi,  Zaf.  vo,  Kas.  vol,  Von.,  Kulir.,  Nay.  vud,  Nat.  vdd, 
Maz.  vd.  Tat  vdr.  My.  vo,  Bal.  gvdt,  N.  Bal.  gvd9,  gvds,  Kurd. 
ha,  vdi.  Tag.  Oss.  vdd.  New  Pers.  (dialectic)  mdng  '  moon,'  Gab. 
mam,  Maz.  mung,  Gil.  7ndm,  Tal.  mdng.  Tat  mang,  Kurd.  mdng. 
Av.  ap  '  water,'  Phi.  dp,  Paz.  «/(;,  New  Pers.  dh,  dv,  Waxi 
yapali,  yuph,  Minj.  yaoya,  Yidg.  ?/ory,  Yayn.  ap.  Gab.  o,  Siv.  an, 
av,  Yazdl  vo,  Kas.  dv.  Nay.  ao,  Nat.  ««,  Samn.  6,  Maz.  o(m),  Gil., 
Tal.,  Tat  dv.  My.  oba,  Bal.  dp,  N.  Bal.  a/,  Kurd.  dv.  Av, 
nqman  '  name/  Old  Pers,  ndman,  Phi.,  New  Pers.  warn,  Wax! 


16  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

nung,  Maz.  nion,  Gil.  7idm,  Afy.  niim,  Bal,  nam,  Dig.  Oss.  wow, 
Tag.  nom. 

Aphaeresis  of  a. 
§  21.    Tlie  aphaeresis  of  a   is   not   uncommon  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  atars  'fire,'  New  Pers.  dtas,  tas,  cttis,  Siy. 
yac,  Sarq.  yuc,  Gab.  tas,  Minj.  yilr,  etc.  (see  §  3).  Av.  dyapta 
'  reward,'  Phi.  [ajydftan,  New  Pers.  ydftati,  Dig.  Oss.  ydfun, 
Tag.  2/a^w. 

Apocope  of  d. 
§  22.    The  apocope  of  original  a  is  similar  to  the  apocope  of  the 
corresponding  short  vowel  (see  §  13,  a). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  clidud  'shadow,'  Hindi  chdm{v), 
chdmh,  chdoni,  Panj.  chcim,  clidiini,  Sindhi  chdm{v),  Guj.  chdmy. 
Skt.  nldrd  '  sleep,'  Prak.,  Pali  niddd,  Hindi,  Panj.  nlmd,  Sindhi 
nimr,  Guj.  nimdd,  Mar.  nid.  Skt.  durvd  '  grass,'  Pali  dubbd, 
Ur.,  Bang,  duha,  Hindi  dub. 

Anaptyxis  of  a. 
§  23.     The  anaptyxis  of  d  is  an  excessively  rare  phenomenon. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  mat-patifrasa  '  with  recompense,'  Phi.  pat- 
fras,  Paz.  pddafrdh,  New  Pers.  pdddfraU,  pddafrah. 


1  =  1. 
§  24.     Indo-Iranian  i  is  generally  retained  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Skt.  iva  '  as,'  Prak.  via,  Pali  iva.  Skt.  vidyut  '  lightning,' 
Prak.,  Pali  vijju,  Ur.  hijuU,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  hijali,  Sindhi 
vijum,  Guj.  vijidl,  Mar.  hijali,  vlj. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  ^wtor  '  father,' Phi.  ji?/Y(ar),  New 
Pers.  pidar,  Kas.  pal,  Siy.,  Sarq.  pid.  Av.  cit  'what,'  Old  Pers. 
ciy,  Paz.,  New  Pers.  cih,  Afy.  ca,  Kurd,  ci,  ca,  ce.  Dig.  Oss.  ci, 
ci,  Tag.  ci.     Av.  i.^tya  '  brick,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  xist,  Bal.  isf,  It. 


VOWELS  17 


^  >  a. 


§  25.  The  change  of  i  to  a  is  quite  common  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  In  Indian  the  phenomenon 
occurs  most  frequently  in  Panjabi,  Sindhl,  and  above  all  in 
Gujarat!.     See  now  Pischel,  Granim.  der  Prdh'it-S2)rachen,  §  115. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  haridrd  'tmrmeric,'  Prak.  haladda,  haladdi, 
Pali  haliddd,  also  Kasm.  Udir^  lidar,  Ur,  haldi,  Bang.  Jialuda, 
Biharl,  Hindi  haldl,  Panj.  haldhi,  Guj.  halad,  Mar.  Tialaddd. 
Skt.  iti  '  thus,'  Prak.  tti,  ia,  Pali  iti.  Skt.  sithila  '  loose,'  Prak. 
sadhila,  siclhila,  Pali  sithila,  sathila,  Ass.  dhil,  Naip.  dhtlo,  Ur. 
dhtla,  Bang,  dhtla,  dhala,  Biharl  dhlld,  E.  Hindi  dhal,  Hindi 
dhild,  Panj.  dhUd,  (Ihiro,  Sindhl  dharo,  dhiro,  dhilo,  Guj.  dJulum, 
Mar.  sadhal,  dhild.  Skt.,  Pali  kathina  '  difficult,'  Ur.,  Bang., 
Hindi  kathin,  Panj.  kathan,  Sindhl  katanu,  Guj.  kafhan,  Mar. 
kadhin.  Skt.  garhhim  '  pregnant,'  Prak.  gahhhim,  Pali  gah- 
hhim,  Bang,  gdhhina  (vulg.  gabna),  Hindi  gdhhin,  Panj.  garahhan, 
Sindhl  gdbhim,  Guj.,  Mar.  gdhhan.  Skt.  divasa  'day,'  Prak. 
divaha,  diaha,  Saur.  divasa,  Pali  divasa,  Mar.  divasa,  Old  Simh. 
divasa,  Simh.  davasa. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ^ijj/o  '  of  winter,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  ^aw,  Tal. 
zumistdn,  WaxI  ^awi,  Siy.  ^/w?//,  Sarq.  samdn,  Afy.  ^imai,  Kurd. 
zavistdn,  Dig.  Oss.  ^umag.  Tag.  zimag.  Av.  5j?is  '  louse,'  Phi. 
spis,  5;pi(s,  New  Pers.  supus,  usjnis,  sjnis,  WaxI  sis,  Sarq.  S2)al, 
Afy.  spaza,  Kurd,  sipi,  Oss.  5?5^/i.  Av.  7i«>t'a  'tongue,'  Phi. 
(h)uzvdn,  suvdn,  New  Pers.  zabdn,  zidjdn,  Gab.  izvun,  WaxI  zik, 
Siy.  ^ay,  Sarq.  ziv,  Afy.  ii&a,  Bal.  zimdn,  Kurd,  azmdn,  ziimdn, 
Oss.  avzag. 

i  >  d. 

§  26.     The  change  of  i  to  a  occurs  very  rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ilisu  'sugar-cane,'  Prak.,  Pali  nccliii,  Ur. 
dkhu,  ukha,  ikha,  Bang,  dku,  Hindi  ikh,  likh,  Guj.,  Mar.  us, 
Simh.  ithgii,  uk. 


18  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

i  >  u. 

§  27.  The  change  of  i  to  m  is  found  both  in  the  Indian  and  in 
the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  The  change  of  i  to  u  is  particularly  frequent  in 
unaccented  syllables  in  Uriya  and  Bangali. 

Skt.  rdjila  'lizard,'  Pali  rajula.  Skt.  isu  'arrow/  Jaina 
Prak.,  PilLi  iisiL  Skt.,  Pali  lindu  *  drop,'  Ur.,  Bang,  hindi, 
Hindi,  Panj.  htmd,  hind,  Sindlii  hiuhd,  huniro,  himrt,  Guj.  htmd, 
viiidit,  Mar.  hindl,  bund,  Simh.  poda.  Skt.  gdirika  '  red  chalk,' 
Ur.  geru,  Hindi  geru,  Guj.  gcru,  Mar.  geru.  Skt.  tintidl  '  tama- 
rind,' Ass.  temteli,  Naip.  titri,  Ur.  tcmtidj,  temttdi,  Bang.  te{m)tul. 
Skt.  iksii  'sugar-cane,'  Simh.  imgu,  ulc,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

b.  Iranian-  The  change  of  i  to  u  is  especially  common  in 
the  Digaimsh  dialect  of  the  Ossetish. 

New  Pers.  muzah  '  eyelash,'  beside  misali.  Gab.  mujang,  Ka§. 
maja,  mnja,  maza,  Bal.  micdc,  N.  Bal.  misds,  Kurd.  mizdnJc, 
miki.  Av.  spis  '  louse/  Phi.  spi^,  spus,  New  Pers.  supu§,  uspus, 
spus,  etc.  (see  §  25).  Av.  zimo  '  of  winter,'  Tal.  zumistdn,  Dig. 
Oss.  zumag,  etc.  (see  §  25).  Av.  hizva  '  tongue,'  Plil.  {li)uzvdn, 
zuvdn,  New  Pers.  zahdn,  zuhdn,  etc.  (see  §  25). 

i  >  z. 

§  28.  The  lengthening  of  i  to  t  is  due  in  the  majority  of  cases 
to  compensatory  lengthening,  as  in  the  case  of  a  developed  from  a 
(see  §  5).  The  phenomenon  occurs  both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  simlia  '  lion,'  Prak.  stha,  Gatha  simlia,  Kasm. 
suh,  Bihrirl,  E.  Hindi  simgh,  simh,  simjli,  Panj.  simgh,  other 
New  Indian  dialects  sithh.  Skt.  jihvd  'tongue,'  Prak.  jlhd, 
jihhhd,  Pali  jihvd.  Ass.  jihd,  Naip.  jibro,  Kasm.  zeo,  Sindlii  jlbh, 
Simh,  diva,  Maladive  dU,  other  New  Indian  dialects  jlbh.  Skt. 
dupasivi,  nom.  prop.,  Pali  upaslva.  Skt.  vimmti  'twenty,' 
Prak.  msaX,  Pali  visam,  vlsati,  Kasm,  viih,  Bang,  blsa,  Hindi  bis, 
Panj,  bih,  Sindhi  vlh,  Guj.,  Mar,  vis.     Skt,   bhaginl  'sister,' 


VOWELS  19 

Prak.  haJiim,  Pali  hhaginl,  Ur.  hhauni,  hhaimi,  Bang,  hham, 
Hindi  haJtin,  Panj.  hhd'm,  haithJi,  Sindlil  hlienu,  Guj.  hehen, 
Mar.  hahin. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Imcidra  '  beautiful,'  Phi.  JmciJir,  New  Pers. 
liu^ir,  Jiujlr,  xujir.  Av.  vicinoit  'gathered/  Phi.  ctfano,  New 
Pers.  cuJan,  Bal.  cinag,  N.  Bal.  chinay,  Kurd,  cinin.  Skt. 
Jcapihjala  'partridge,'  Bal.  kapmjar,  N.  Bal.  Jchavinjar.  Av. 
is^ya  '  brick,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  xisf,  Bal.  ?^^,  f^.  Old  Pers.  cisciy 
'  something,'  New  Pers.  cl^,  Kurd,  tist 

i  >  u. 

§  29.     The  change  of  i  to  u  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ilxm  'sugar-cane,'  Ur.  cikhu,  iMia,  tilcha, 
Hindi  thh,  tikh,  Guj,,  Mar.  us,  etc.  (see  §  26). 

i  >  e. 

§  30.  The  change  of  i  to  e,  e  is  not  infrequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  but  it  is  exceedingly  rare  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  where 
a  few  cases  of  the  compensatory  lengthening  of  i  to  e  are  found. 
In  the  Indian  dialects  the  change  appears  most  frequently  before 
double  consonants  in  Middle  Indian  (consequently  the  e  in  such 
cases  is  short).  Of  the  New  Indian  dialects  the  Gujarat!  presents 
the  greatest  number  of  examples  of  this  change,  which  is,  on  the 
whole,  more  common  in  the  West  of  India  than  in  the  East. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nidrd  'sleep,'  Prak.  neddd,  niddd.  Skt. 
Jcirdfa  '  hypocrite,'  Pali  JceratiJca,  kerdtiya.  Skt.  dvibhdga  '  two- 
fold,' Pali  dvehhdga.  Skt.  tintidl  '  tamarind,'  Ass.  tethteli,  Ur. 
temfull,  temhdi,  Bang.  te{th)tid,  etc.  (see  §  27).  Skt,  sindtira 
'  vermilion,'  Prak.  sendiira,  Pali  sindilra,  Ass,  senditr,  sindur, 
Bang,  sindur,  Bihari  senur,  Hindi  scmdur,  Sindhi  sindhuru,  Guj. 
sindur,  Mar.  semdur. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers,  ciy  'what,'  Kurd,  ce,  m,  ca,  etc.  (see  §  24). 
New  Pers.  gisniz  '  coriander,'  Bal.  genic. 


C  2 


20  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

ApJiaeresis  of  i. 

§  31.  Aphaeresis  of  original  i  is  very  rare  in  the  Indian 
dialects.  The  Tagaurish  dialect  of  the  Ossetish  presents  several 
instances  of  the  aphaeresis  of  i  which  has  become  initial  after  the 
loss  of  original  initial  consonants, 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  iddnmi  '  now,'  Prak.,  Pali  ddni{m). 

[b.  Iranian.  Av.  vJsaiti  'twenty/  Phi.  visf,  New  Pers.  hist, 
Kas.  vJstd,  vJs{sd),  Waxi  vlst,  Sarq.  vist,  Bal.  gist,  Dig.  Oss. 
insai,  Tag.  ssaj.  Av,  histaiti  '  stands/  Dig.  Oss.  isthun,  Tag. 
sthi7i.] 

Syncope  of  i. 

§  32.  The  syncope  of  i  is  excessively  rare.  Possibly  the  loss 
of  a  final  i  in  a  word  which  is  made  the  first  member  of  a  compound 
may  be  considered  here. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sairi-gaona  'having  a  golden  colour/  New 
Pers.  saryun,  Afy.  saryun. 

Apocope  of  i. 

§  33.  Apocope  of  i  is  common  both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  drsH  '  sight/  Prak.,  Pali  ditthi,  Hindi  dUhi, 
dlth,  dith,  Panj.  ditth,  Sindlil  diti,  Mar.  d'lth.  Skt.  vyakti 
'  person,'  Hindi  WmL 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  haca  ' from '  + aSairi  'beneath,'  Paz,  azer, 
New  Pers.  zcr,  Afy.  lar,  Kurd,  z'lr,  Tag.  Oss.  dala. 

Proihesis  of  i. 

§  34.  Prothetic  i  is  excessively  rare  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
In  the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  quite  common, 
especially  before  initial  consonant-groups  whose  first  component 
is  a  sibilant. 

a.  Indian,     Skt.  strl  '  woman,'  Prak,,  Pali  itthi,  thl,  Gatha 

istri,  colloquial  Hindi  istrl,  astrl,  Sindhi  istn,  Elu  itiri,  Simh, 

istri. 


VOWELS  21 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  spaefa  '■  white/  Plil.  spet,  New  Pers.  siped, 
ispi'd,  Zaf.  soho,  Kas,  ashed,  Kuhr.  ashe,  Sarq.  spaid,  Yidg.  sp'i, 
Afy.  spin,  spem,  Kurd,  ispi,  spi.  Skt.  srgdla  'jackal,'  Phi., 
New  Pers.  saydl,  Siy.,  Sarq.  isJccd,  Afy.  caydl.  Av.  gaosa  '■  ear,' 
Phi.,  New  Pers.  gos,  Wax!  yiis,  yis,  Afy.  yvay,  Bal.  gos,  Kurd. 
giih,  Dig.  Oss,  yos,  Tag.  g'«i5,  but  Dig.  iyosim  'to  hear,'  Tag. 
qusin.  Skt.  rt^a^ra  '  limb,'  Dig.  Oss.  ion,  Tag.  o«.  [Hiibschmann 
considers  the  i  in  these  cases  to  be  original  in  the  Oss.,  but  he 
thinks  that  the  Tag.  dialect  has  lost  the  i,  rather  than  that  the 
Dig.  shows  a  prothetic  i.] 


I  =  t. 

§  35.  Indo-Iranian  %  is  generally  preserved  without  change 
both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  In  Assamese  no 
character  for  %  exists,  i  being  written  instead.  Tlie  Old  Hindi 
often  writes  iy  for  i  (Skt.  jiva  'life,'  Old  Yiinda  jiyava).  The  New 
Persian,  as  is  well  known,  has  confused  in  many  words  the  majhul 
('  unknown  [to  the  Arabs] '  =  Persian  somids)  vowels  e,  o  with  the 
malrfif  ('known  [to  the  Arabs] '  =  Arabic  sounds)  vowels  I,  u. 
The  Judaeo-Persian  and  the  Baluci,  like  the  Indian  pronunciation 
of  New  Persian,  maintain  clearly  the  original  distinction  between 
the  majlml  and  the  ma  ]ruf  vowels. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jivita  'life,'  Prak.  jivla,  Pali  jlvifa.  Skt. 
dJrgha  '  long,'  Prak.  di}ia{ra),  diggha,  Pah  dtglia,  Sindlil  drigho. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  kstra  '  milk,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sir,  Sir.,  Siy. 
sirln,  Minj.  xslr,  Kurd,  sir,  Oss.  axsir.  Av.  vtra  '  understand- 
ing,' Phi.  vir{a]c),  New  Pers.  vlr,  Gab.  vJr,  Bal.  gJr,  Kurd.  Mr. 

%  >  a. 

§  36.     The  change  of  «  to  a  is  an  excessively  rare  one. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hhlsma  '  terrible,'  Pali  hhasma,  hhisma.  Skt. 
pariksd  'test,'  Bang,  parahha,  paraJchd'i,  Hindi  parahhdnd, 
paraTzhdiyd,  Panj.  paraJcJiavmh,  paraJchandr,  Sindhi  pdrakhia, 
parJcJianu,  Mar.  parakhanem,  pdrakJii. 


22  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

I  >  i. 

§  37.  The  shortening  of  I  is  naturally  the  most  common  change 
to  which  I  is  subject.  It  occurs,  however,  with  comparative 
infrequency  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  For  the  principal  conditions 
under  which  the  change  occure  see  above  under  §  25. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tll'sna  'sharp,'  Prak.  tinha,  tikJcha,  Pali 
tmha,  tUillia,  tikliina,  New  Indian  dialects  ttJcJi,  except  Panj., 
Sindhi,  Guj.  tikh.  Skt.  Isvam  '  lord,'  Prak,  tsara,  Pali  issara, 
Hindi,  Panj.  fs«r.  Skt.  alika  '■  false,'  Prak.  alia,  Pali  alika.  Skt. 
dvitlya  'second,'  Prak  dnia.,  Ur.  diisra,  Old  Hindi  diijci,  Hindi 
diisara,  Panj.  du{j)d,  Sindhi  hljo,  hid,  Guj.  hJjo,  Mar.  diisard.  Skt. 
ga{m)hhira  'deep,'  Prak.  gahira,  Pali  ga{m)hh'ira,  Ur.  gahira, 
Hindi  gahira,  gahard,  Sindhi  gdhird.  Skt.  hila  'pin,'  Pali 
Jc{h)lla,  Ur.  kild,  Hindi  Jcilld,  Panj.  kill,  Sindhi  kill,  Mar.  killd. 
Skt.  klta  'worm,'Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  kldd,  Sindhi  kido, 
Guj.  kldo.  Mar.  kidd,  kid.  Skt.  sJrsa  'head,' Prak.  sissa,  sJsa, 
Pali  slsa,  Hindi,  Panj.  sJs,  Sindlil  sisi,  Guj,  sis,  Mar.  sJ{m)s, 
Simh.  iha,  isa,  his,  sis.  Skt.  klrti  'fame,'  Prak.,  Pilli  kitti 
Siihh.  kit 

b.  Iranian.  Old  P ers.  jivdhy  'thou  shalt  live,'  Phi.  zivandak 
'living,'  New  Pers.  zindak.  Skt.  ksira  '  milk,'  Sir.,  §iy.  sirin, 
Oss.  axsir,  etc.  (see  §  35).  Skt.  hlja  'seed,'  Bal.  hij.  New  Pers. 
kohl  'mountainous,'  Kurd.  kOvi. 

I  >  u. 

§  38.  The  change  of  I  to  u  is  excessively  rare  in  the  Indo- 
Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jira  '  cummin-seed, '  Simh.  duru.  Skt.  jpm- 
vdsin  '  sojourner,'  Prak.  pavdsu. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  nfizda  'reward,'  Phi.  muzd,  Paz,  wio^c?,  New 
Pers.  muzd,  midd,  Kurd.,  Oss.  mizd. 


VOWELS  23 

I  >  a. 

§  39.     The  change  of  l  to  a  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tirasclna  'going  sideways,'  Pali  tiracchana 
'  animal. ' 

I  >  e. 

§  40.  The  change  from  ^  to  e  is  not  very  common  in  the 
Middle  Indian  dialects,  while  in  the  New  Indian  and  in  the 
Iranian  dialects  it  is  still  more  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  JcJclrsa  '  what  kind  ? '  Prak.  Jicrisa,  Apab. 
Prak.  Jcelu,  Sindlil  Jceharo,  heru.  Skt.  nlda  '  nest, '  Prak.  nedda, 
mda,  Pali  niddha,  nila.  Skt,  grliltva  'having  taken,'  Pali 
gahetvd.  Skt.  hnda  'sport,'  Pfili  khela,  Hindi  kJielna,  Gyp. 
VTvhel  'to  dance,'     Skt,  hhima  'fearful,'  Sirhh.  hem. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  ^j/r  '  old, '  New  Pers.  jjZr,  Judaeo-Pers.  ^er, 
Bal.  plruJc,  N.  Bal.  pMruh 

I  >  0. 

§  41.  The  change  of  ^  to  o  is  very  rare  in  the  Indo-Iranian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  tlrtha  '  landing-place,'  Prak.  tittha,  tuha, 
Pali  tittha,  Sindhi  tlrtJiu,  Siihh.  tofa. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  sinjir  '  chain,'  Waxi  zanzlr,  Siy, 
einsir,  Sarq,  zanzair,  Bal.  zamzil,  Kurd,  zanjor,  zanjir. 

Apocope  of  I. 

§  42.  The  apocope  of  final  l  occurs  in  several  New  Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  garbhinl  'pregnant,'  Hindi  gdbhin,  Panj. 
garahhan,  Guj.,  Mar,  gahhan,  etc.  (see  §  25), 


u  =  u. 


§  43,     Indo-Iranian  u  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 


24  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  chupati  '  touches,'  Prak,  chupa'i,  Pali  chiqjati, 
Ur.,  Bang,  chnm,  Old  Hindi  c^mA,  Hindi  chii,  Panj.  c/m/i, 
Sindhi  c//?<//,  Guj.  chti,  cho.  Skt.  imnisa  'man,'  Prak.  purisa, 
paiirisa,  Pali  2)io'isa,  'Ba.ng.  jxiriis,  Sindhi 2)urusu,  Gyp.  j^osa,  cf. 
also  Q'nhh.  j^irimiyd,  Maladive^r^w^^Aa. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hiiska  '  dry,'  Old  Pers,  nslca,  Phi,,  New 
Pers.  xusk,  Kas.  zisk,  Waxi  vask,  Afy.  vuc,  Bal.  husay,  Oss. 
:rM5(Z;).  Av.  diiyhar  '  daughter/  Phi.  ^t<a;#,  New  Pers.  duxt[ar), 
Waxi  hagd,  Sangl.  day,  Minj.  ?oyfZa,  Yidg.  luydoh,  Afy.  Zwr, 
Kurd,  diixt,  ditt  Skt.  mudrd  '  seal,'  Plil.  mutrdk,  mudar,  muhr, 
New  Pers.,  Kurd,  muhr,  Oss.  mixur. 

u  >  a. 

§  44.  The  change  of  «  to  a  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Indian 
dialects.  In  the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  com- 
paratively rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  pimar  '  again,'  Prak.  pumi,  pana  (Shahbaz- 
garhi  inscriptions).  Pah  pana.  Skt,  splmrati  '  flashes,'  Ptlli 
pharati.  Skt,  suruidga  '  mine,'  Pali  suramga,  Ur.  sudamga, 
BDiarl,  Hindi  suranig,  Sindhi  sirimgh,  Mar.  suramg.  Skt. 
karhura  '  variegated,'  Hindi  kahard,  kdhar,  Panj,  kahrd,  Sindhi 
kuhiro,  Guj,  kdhar,  Mar.  kaJtard.  Skt,  durhala  '  weak,'  Prak,, 
Pali  duhhala,  Bang,  diihld,  Biharl  duhard,  duhar,  Hindi  diihld, 
Panj.  dubhal,  Smdhi  duhiru,  dahalo,  Guj,  duhal{d),  Mar.  duhal. 

b,  Iranian,    Av.  yuvan  'youth,'  Plil.  ynvdn,  New  F ers.  javdn, 
van,  Maz.  javdn,  Afy.,  Bal.  javdn.     Skt.  mukha  '  face,'  Afy. 

maa;.  Av.  ?ts^ra  '  camel,'  Phi.  u§tr.  New  Pers.  «ei?^?<»",  Waxi 
ustilr.  Sly.  star,  Bal.  hustar,  Kurd,  hastir.  Av.  fZw/na  'tail,' 
Phi.,  New  Pers.  dum{h),  Sarq.  biim{hd),  Afy.  Zaw?,  Bal.  dim, 
Kurd,  diiv,  dunk,  Dig.  Oss.  dumag,  Tag,  dimag. 

u  >  i. 

§  45,  The  change  of  u  to  i  is  not  common  either  in  the  Indian 
or  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian,     Skt.  purusa  '  man/  Prak.  purisa,  paiirisa,  Pali 


VOWELS  25 

purisa,  cf.  also  Simh.  pirimiyd^  Maladive  JirimiJia,  etc.  (see 
§  43).  Skt.  kufumha  'family,'  Pali  Jmtimha.  Skt.  undura, 
undara  'rat,'  Pali  iindura,  E.  New  Ind.  dialects  indilr,  Mar. 
undir.  Skt.  valuJca  'sand,'  Pali  vdlukd,  Ass.,  Ur.,  Bang,  bctli, 
Hindi  hdlu,  Sindhi  van,  Guj.  Idlu,  Mar.  vdluyd.  Skt.  5^zt^i 
'  praise,'  Prak.  fJmi,  Pali  thnti,  Simh.  tiyu,  tivu,  tiiti. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  puQra  '  son,'  Old  Pers.  ptid^'a,  Phi.  piis{ar), 
New  Pers.  ^/Mr,  pusar,  pisar,  Gab.  ^wr,  KaS.  ^wr,  pilr,  Samn.  plr, 
WaxI  j)dfr,  Siy.  piic,  Sarq.  j;oc,  Kurd.  2)isir,  Dig.  Oss.  furtJi, 
Tag,  ^r^/i.  Av.  ^W5aw  '  they  evacuated,'  Plil.  tuJi'ik  '■  empty,' 
New  Pers.  UM,  Gab.  toJii,  Judaeo-Pers.  tuha,  Bal.  tusag,  N.  Bal. 
thusay.  Av.  Jima  'foundation,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  hun,  Waxi 
hon,  Siy.  hon,  Sarq.  ?>mw,  Bal.  hund,  Kurd,  hin,  hiin,  Dig.  Oss. 
hin,  Tag.  &iiz.     Skt.  stuti  '  praise,'  Dig.  Oss.  stud,  Tag.  s^id 

«t  >  a. 

§  46.     Tlie  change  of  «*  to  a  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  Widnuniati  'jugglery,'  Mar.  hhdndmatl. 

u  >  I. 

§  47.     Tlie  change  of  u  to  l  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  suxra  '  red,'  Old  Pers.  Buxra-,  Plil.  suxr, 
New  Pers.  siirx,  Sir,  sirali,  Siv.  5fr,  Yazdl  surJcuh,  Kuhr.,  Ka§. 
silr,  WaxI  soJcr,  Siy.  5^ra/i,  Afy.  5Mr,  Bal.  suhr,  Kurd.  5or,  Dig. 
Oss,  surx,  Tag,  ^ira.     Av.  duma  '  tail,'  Bal.  c?I>«,  etc.  (see  §  44). 

zi  >  il. 

§  48.  The  lengthening  of  u  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo- 
Iranian  dialects  is  due  in  the  majority  of  cases  to  compensation 
(cf.  also  §§  5,  28). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ufsava  '  feast,'  Prak.  usava,  Pali  ussava. 
Skt.  hula  '  family,' Prak.,  Pali  hula,  Ur.  hula,  Sindhi  hum,  hidu, 
Guj.  hul,  Mar.  hill,  ^^i^^-  Skt.  musala  'pestle,'  Prak.  naisala, 
Pali  musala,  Bang,  musal,  Hindi  musal.  Skt.  pura  'town,' 
Prak.,  Pali  pura,  Bihar,  pur.     Skt.  samudra  'sea,'  Prak.  sa- 


26  IN  DO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

miidda,  Pali  samudda,  muhudda,  Simh,  7nuhi<da,  mfida.  Skt. 
musti  'fist,'  Pnik.,  Pali  mufthi,  Bang,  miithd,  muthi^  Hindi 
mfitJi,  muthd,  Sindhi  mnfJii,  vifdh,  Guj.  muftho. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ])c)rotu  '  bridge,'  Phi.  puhr^  pnldj  New  Pers. 
piiJd,2)iil,  Gil.  j;w>Y?,  Kurd,  par,  pir{d),  purd.  Ay.  piidra  'son,' 
New  Pers.  pur,  pusar,  pisar,  Gab.  pur,  Ka§.  j?rtr,  pur,  etc.  (see 
§  45).  Av.  suxra  '  red,'  Afy.  sili',  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Kurd. 
tiirh  'turnip,'  MukrI  tiir. 

u  >  c. 

§  49.  Tlie  change  of  u  to  e  is  excessively  rare  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  p{}i)upphusa  'lung,'  Prak.  phupplmsa,  Pali 
pliapphdsa,  Ur.  pliamsopliamsa,  phdmphdmi,  Bang,  phtmpara, 
phompasd,  Hindi  ph'phard,  phPpJiard,  Sindhi  pliiphiru,  Mar. 
plwpJs. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  savaite  'goes,'  Old  Pers.  asiyavam,  New 
Pers.  kid,  Waxi  cauam,  Siy.  mfcam,  Sarq.  zavsam,  Afy.  sval, 
Bal.  sut{u),  N.  Bal.  suhd,  suOa,  Kurd,  clan,  Zaza  se,  Oss.  aum. 

u  >  0. 

§  50.  The  change  of  u  to  o  is  very  rare  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
In  the  Iranian  dialects  the  confusion  between  the  majJifd  and  the 
maWuf  vowels  must  be  borne  in  mind.  Somewhat  akin  to  the 
change  of  u  to  o  is  the  change  of  ti  to  o  in  Waxi  and  to  il  m  Sari- 
qoli,  while  the  other  New  Persian  dialects  usually  retain  original 
u  unchanged. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  muJctd  '  pearl,'  Prak.  mottd,  Pali  muttd,  Ur. 

moti,  Bang.  7nuti,  matt,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi,  Guj.,  Mar.  moti. 

Skt.    idfdchala   'mortar,'  Prak.  Dhala,    oWiala,   n{l)ahala,   Ur. 

tdchall,  Mar.  tdchal     Skt.  idled  'torch,'  Prak.  iikkd,  Pilli  okkd. 

Skt.  ku.^tha  '  leprosy,'  Ass.  kitth,  Naip.  kor,  Ur.  kodha,  Bang. 

koth,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Guj.  kodh  (cf.  Skt.  ku^thin  '  leper,'  Hindi 

kdri\  Mar.  kd(l.    Skt.,  Prdi  kudddla  'hoe,'  Ur.  kord.  Bang.  ^-ofZa?, 

Sindlii  kOrarl,  Guj.  koddro,  Simh.  udalu,  uddlla.     Skt.  pustaka 


VOWELS  27 

'  book/  Prak.  pofthaa,  Ptili  j^otihaha,  New  Ind.  dialects  pOtha, 
potJil,  Simh.  2^ota. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ttsl  '  understanding,'  Phi.  {h)ds,  New  Pers. 
hd§,  Ms.  Av.  usah  'dawn,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  Jws.  Av.  pu6ra 
'  son,'  Kas.  pib%  pilr^  Wax!  potr,  Sarq.  poc,  etc.  (see  §  45).  Av. 
suxra  '  red,'  Kiilir.,  Kas.  sur,  WaxI  soJcr,  etc.  (see  §  47).  Skt. 
yuga  'yoke,'  New  Pers.  juy,  Kuhr.  yu,  Siy.  yuy,  Sarq.  «/wy, 
Kurd.  jiik. 

Apliaeresis  of  u. 

§  51.  The  loss  of  initial  ti  is  not  uncommon  in  the  New  Indian 
dialects,  although  it  occurs  but  rarely  in  the  Middle  Indian.  In 
the  Iranian  dialects  aphaeresis  of  u  seems  to  have  been  preceded 
in  the  Middle  Iranian  by  a  change  oi  u  to  a  (Old  Pers.  upariy 
'  above,'  Plil.  apm%  Paz.  aivar^  New  Pers.  {a)bar.  Skt.  upasthana 
'  assistance,'  Phi.  apastdn). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  udaJca,  daka  '  water,'  Jaina  Prak.  daga^  Pali 
daka,  oM,  Simh.  daga,  daya,  diya.  Skt.  upavisati  'sits  down,' 
Pali  upavisati,  Ass.  halic,  Naip.  hase,  Kasm.  Vhili,  Ur.,  Bang. 
hase,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  ha'ise,  Sindhi  hilie,  Mar.  Mise,  vase.  Skt., 
Pali  udumhara  'fig-tree,'  Ur.  dumun,  Bang,  dumtir.  Skt. 
upadliyaya  'teacher,'  Prak.  uajjJiaa,  Pali  iipajjhdya,  Bihar! 
pddhd,  Hindi  Ojhd. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  upairi  '  above,'  Old  Pers.  upariy,  Phi.  apar, 
Paz.  aivar,  New  Pers,  {a)har,  Waxi,  Sarq.  va?\  Afy.  pre-,  Bal. 
par,  gvar,  N.  Bal.  jy^tar,  Kurd.  &ar.  Dig.  Oss.  vol.  Tag.  oZ.  Av. 
ustra  '  camel,'  Phi.  ^^str,  New  Pers.  t(s^i(r,  s?(^«fr,  WaxI  ilstiir, 
Siy.  ^^wr,  Bal.  Jiustar,  ustir. 

Syncope  of  u. 

§  52.  Syncope  of  w  is  comparatively  rare  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  duhitar  'daughter,'  Prak.  dhu{d)d,  dM{d)d, 
Pali  dhitd,  Ur.  jhia,  Bang.  jM,  Hindi,  Panj.  dhi{yd),  Sindhi 
dhiu,  dhiy,  Guj.  dln{yd). 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  daitjhurpaiti  'lord  of  the  land,'  New  Pers. 


28  JNDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

dihxan  '  village-chief '  (cf.  Armenian  loan-word  delipet  from  Av, 
daubhu-paiti). 

Axwcopc  of  u. 

§  53.  The  loss  of  final  u  occurs  very  frequently  in  the  New 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prak.  taru  '  tree/  Bihar!  tar[u).  Skt.  hahu 
'arm,'  Apab.  Mha.,  Pali  haliu^  Ur.,  Bang,  halm,  Hindi,  Panj. 
hamh,  Sindhi  hamh,  Guj.  hamhi,  Mar.  hamhi,  haM,  hahu. 

Prothesis  of  u. 

§  54.  The  prothesis  of  ti  is  very  frequent  in  the  Iranian  dialects 
before  initial  consonant-groups.  The  phenomenon  is  not  fomid  in 
the  Indian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  stiina  '■  column/  Phi.  siun,  New  Pers.  sutun, 
ustun,  My.  stan,  Kurd,  {ijstun.  Skt.  stimra  '■  firm,'  New  Pers. 
siturg,  snturg,  Yidg.  ^{stilr,  Afy.  star,  BaL  istiir,  Kurd,  tisfilr, 
Dig.  Oss.  sthur,  Tag.  sfhir.  Av.  starj  '  star/  Sangl.  usturak,  etc. 
(see  §  14).  Av.  5jji5  *  louse,'  New  Pers.  sujms,  tisjnis,  sjnis,  etc. 
(see  §  25). 

Epenthesis  of  u. 

§  55.  The  epenthesis  of  u  is  very  rare.  The  Kasmlrl  shows 
many  cases  of  an  inserted  u  after  i  in  ?<-stems. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nlla  '  blue,'  Kasm.  nyula.  Skt.  drsfha  '  seen,' 
Kasm.  dyufhu. 

U  —  u. 

§  56.  Indo-Iranian  u  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prak.  hhumi  'earth,' Pali  hhiinii,  hhiimmi, 
Ur.  hJiuma,  Bang,  hhilm,  Hindi,  Panj.  hhilm,  hhulm,  hhim, 
Sindhi  hhl{i)h),  Guj.  hhu{y),  hhoy,  Mar.  hkmj,  Simh.  hima. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hilmi  '  earth,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  hiim.  Av., 
Old  Pers.  dura  '  far,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  di'ir,  Gab.  dJr,  Maz.  dlr, 
Gil.  dur,  Wax!  Ur,  Siy.,  Sarq.  bar,  Yidg.  luro,  Af/.  Itrl,  Kurd. 
dur. 


VOWELS  29 

u  >  a. 

§  57.  The  change  of  ti  to  a  is  not  frequent  either  in  the  Indian 
or  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  excepting  in  the  Afyan,  when  u  often 
becomes  a  before  nasals  or  r. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  duhiila  'silken  robe,'  Prak.  dudlla,  duiila, 
Jaina  Prak.  dugtdla,  Pali  dulifda.  Skt.  hhrumnkha  '  eyebrow,' 
Jaina  Prak.  hJiatnuha,  Pali  hhanmha  (cf.  also  Pali  hJiamu  '  eye- 
brow'), Gyp.  phov.  [See  now  Pischel,  Gr.  d.  Prdk.-Spr., 
§§  206,  261.] 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  stliura  '  large,'  New  Pers.  siturg,  suturg, 
Yidg.  tishlr,  Afy.  star,  Bal.  istur,  Kurd,  ustilr,  Dig.  Oss.  sthur, 
Tag.  sthir.  Skt.  nmiam  '  now,'  Av.  nuram,  Phi.,  New  Pers.  nun, 
oiy.  nur,  Sarq.  wwr,  Afy.  nan,  Bal.  wtlw. 

M  >  i. 

§  58.  The  change  of  t^  to  i  is  very  rare  in  the  Indo-Iranian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  miilga  'price,'  Ur.  tnilla,  Guj.,  Mar.  mol, 
Siihh.  mila.  Skt.  silrya  '  sun,'  Prak.  sujja,  suria,  Pali  suriija, 
Hindi,  Panj.  suraj,  Sindhi  surju,  suriju,  Guj.  suraj,  silr,  Sirhli. 
{h)iriL 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  mus  '  mouse,'  New  Pers.  mus,  Gab.  musk, 
Samn.  mm,  Afy.  maya(Z;),  Bal.  w^^s/^,  N.  Bal.  mmk,  Kurd. 
mis{i)Jc,  Dig.  Oss.  mista.  Tag.  wisf. 

w  >  w. 

§  59.  The  shortening  of  m  to  m  is  the  most  frequent  change  to 
which  u  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 
It  occurs  especially  before  double  consonants  or  consonant-groups 
(cf.  §§  16,  37).     In  Assamese  u  is  always  written  u. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   mulija  'price,'  Prak.  mulla,  molla,  Kasin. 

mol  (but  middi  '  radically '),  Ur.  miila,  Bang.,  Hindi  mol,  Panj. 

tnull,  Sindhi  midhu.  Mar.  mol.     Skt.  turya  '  musical  instrument,* 

Prak.  tiira,  Jaina  Prak.   tudiya,  Pali  turiya,  Ur,   tun.  Bang. 

turum,  Hindi  tun,  turaJil,  Panj.  turam,  Sindlil,  Guj.  tun.     Skt. 


30  JNDO-IRANJAN  PHONOLOGY 

scdfika  '  root  of  the  water-lily/  Pali  saluka.  Skt.  ciirna  '  dust,' 
Prak.,  Pali  cinpia,  Kasm.  cun,  Ur.  curd,  Bang,  cur,  Hindi  cura, 
Panj,  cur,  Sindhi  curd,  Guj.  curd.  Mar.  cur,  also  Ur.,  Bang,  cund, 
Hindi  cund,  Panj.  cund,  cum,  Sindlil  cunu,  Guj.  cuno,  Mar. 
cund.  Skt.  lupa  '  well,'  Naip.  Z;2(m,  Kasm.  Jcliuli,  Ur.,  Bang, 
fcilia,  Bihari,  Hindi,  Panj.  Jcfi{>h)dm,  Sindhi  kJitihu,  Guj.,  Mar. 
Icuvo.  Skt.  dhtlma  'smoke,'  Prak.,  Pilli  dhuma.  Ass.  dlmhd, 
Naip.  dhudm,  Kasm.  duh,  Ur.  dhfohd,  Bang,  dhuydm,  E.  Hindi, 
Hindi,  Panj.  dhii{m)dm,  Sindlii  dhumhdni,  Guj.,  Mar.  dlmm, 
Simh.   f?««>«,  G}^).  //m<v. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ?><7^a  *  goat,'  PhL  huj,  New  Pers.  &?<5',  huj, 
WaxI  hue,  hiic,  Siy.,  Sarq.  va^,  Sangl.  vu;s,  Minj.  vu^a.  Av. 
(7M5a  *  excrement,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  guh,  ELaS.  gus,  Wax!  gU,  g% 
§iy.  yaQ,  Yayn.  yf(f{ah),  Afy.  y^<?,  N.  Bal.  ^fl^,  Kurd.  (/m.  Skt. 
nilnam  'now,'  Av.  niirdm,  Siy.  nur,  Sarq.  ??«r,  etc.  (see  §  57). 
Av.  Till  '  where,'  Paz.  ku,  New  Pers.  kujd,  Minj.  ko,  Afy.  kum, 
Bal.  Z:t7,  N.  Bal.  khu,  Kurd,  ku,  Oss.  klm{d). 

[Final  il  is  often  shortened  to  u  in  the  New  Indian  dialects. 

Skt.  vadhu  '  bride,' Prak.  vahu,  Pali  vadJiii,  Ur.  k//<?^,  Bang. 

haii,  Hindi  halm,  Panj.  huJm,  Sindhi  vahu,  Guj.  fa/iw.  Mar.  vahu 

(yet  in  most  of  these  dialects  the  word  is  actually  pronounced 

boh{u)).] 

u  >  d. 

§  60.     The  change  of  u  to  d  is  an  excessively  rare  one. 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  masuraka  '  pillow,'  Pali  masdraka. 

u  >  l. 

§  61.     Tlie  change  of  ii  to  I  is  very  rare  in  the  Indian  dialects, 
but  in  the  Iranian  dialects  it  is  not  uncommon. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  hahurilpa  '  juggler,'  Mar.  hhurapi,  h{h)drJp. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  dura  'far,'  Gab.  d'lr,  Maz.  dJr, 
Waxi  blr,  Afy.  llri,  liri,  etc.  (see  §  56).  Skt.  dhuma  '  smoke,' 
Phi.  duf.  New  Pers.  dud,  WaxI  bit,  Siy.  bud,  Sarq.  biif.  My.  lu, 
Bal.  diit,  d'd,  N.  Bal.  dlO,  Kurd.  du.  New  Pers.  hudand  '  they 
were,'  Tat  h'lrund.     Kurd,  harlk  '  pocket '  beside  haruk. 


VOWELS  31 

ti  >  e. 
§  62.     Tlio  change  of  il  to  c  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nUpura  '  anklet,'  Prak.  neura,  neura,  niura, 
Pali  mlpura,  Ur.  nvpiira,  nfq)ura,  Sindlil  nurd,  Guj.,  Mar. 
nepur.  Skt.  pHrva  '■  former,'  Prak.  puvva,  Saur.  Prak.  purava, 
New  Ind.  dialects  purha,  except  Hindi  purab,  Sindhi  purbti, 
Simh.  pera. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sUka  '■  needle,'  Phi.  siican,  Paz.  suzan,  sozan, 
New  Pers.  sozan,  Gab.  sajan,  Kas.,  Zaf.  sozo,  Waxi  sic,  Sarq, 
5«c,  Bal.  sucin,  slcin,  N.  Bal.  sisij*,  slsan,  sisin,  sesln,  Kurd. 
silmi. 

■il  >  0. 

§  63.     Tliis  change,  like  the  one  preceding,  is  a  very  rare  one. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ilrja  '  strength,'  Pali  oja.  Skt.  tambula 
'betel,'  Prak.  tanibola,  Pali  tamhtlla,  Ur.  tamhola,  Guj.  tamhitl, 
Mar.  tamhul,  cf.  also  Bang,  tanibuli  '  betel-seller,'  Hindi  tdmholl, 
Panj.  tamholi,  Guj.  taniboll,  Mar,  tdinboU. 

ii  >  yah. 

§  64.     The  interchange  of  u  and  f/fl^^  occurs  only  finally.     It  is 
exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  mlu  'leech,'  Siy.,  Sarq.  mlyah,  Afy. 
zavara,  Bal.  zardy,  Kurd.  zalu{g),  zulul,  sun. 

u  >  va. 

§  65.  The  change  of  u  to  va  seems  to  occur  only  initially.     It  is 
extremely  uncommon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  unavimsati 'nineteen,' Prak.  ilnavisa'i, 'Ka.sm. 
kunavuh,  Ur.  undisa,  Bang,  unis,  Biharl  Ona'is,  vana'is,  Hindi 
wiis,  Panj.  unnlh. 


§  66.     Indo-Iranian  r,  which  is  represented  by  r  in  Old  Indian, 
by  drd  in  Avestan,  and  by  ar  in  Old  Persian,  has  been  changed  in 


32  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects  to  a,  f,  w,  o,  or  into  r 
(sometimes  1}  preceded  or  followed  by  a,  i,  u.  The  quality  of  the 
vowel  in  the  various  developments  here  considered  is  generally 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  consonants  which  stand  near 
the  original  r.  Thus  the  usual  change  of  r  is  to  a(r),  ra,  but  labials 
often  colour  the  vowel  to  u{r),  and  sibilants  colour  it  to  i{r). 

In  the  Indian  Gfitha  dialect  r  is  regularly  retained  unchanged, 
and  in  Apabhramsa  Pralcrit  r  often  remains. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   sulcrta    '  well  done,'  Apab.  Prak.   suJirdu, 

snhi{d)u.      Skt.    trna   '  grass,'  Apab.    Prak.    trnu,    tanu,   tinu, 

Bang,  tinakd,  tilaJcd,  Hindi  tinaJcd,  Panj.  tin,  Sindhi  till,  Mar. 

tan,  Simh.  tana. 

r  >  ar. 

§  67.  Tlie  change  of  r  to  ar  is  quite  rare  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
In  the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  quite  frequent. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  grha  '  house '  (also  geha),  Prak.  geha,  Apab. 
Prak.  gharu,  Pali  ghara,  gaha,  geha,  Kasm.  gahar,  gar,  Old 
Hindi  geha,  New  Ind.  dialects  ghar,  excepting  Mar.  geh,  Simh. 
ge,  geya.  Gyp.  hher,  hyel. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  apdrandyu  *  boy,'  Phi.  apurndyah.  New  Pers. 
harnd,  hurnd.  Av.  Jcoroma  'worm,'  Phi.  Jcarm,  New  Pers.  Jcirm, 
Sarq.  carm,  Kurd,  harm,  Jcurum,  Dig.  Oss.  Ichalmitha,  Tag. 
khalm.  Av.  arasa  'bear,'  PhL,  New  Pers.  xirs,  Maz.  as,  Siy. 
yurs,  Sarq.  ym'x,  Yidg.  yars,  Afy.  yai,  Kurd,  virc,  hirs,  hire, 
ZsLza  xec,  Oss,  ars.  Av.  zjrocaya  '  heart,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  dil, 
Maz.  zilah,  Gil.  z'd,  Siy.  zrdh,  zrdy,  Sarq.  zdrd,  Sangl.  uzray, 
Minj.  zU,  Afy.  zra,  Bal.  sirde,  Kurd,  zar,  Oss.  zarda.  Av.  sarota 
'  cold,'  Phi.  sart.  New  Pers.  sard.  Gab.  sart,  WaxI  sUriJ),  Afy. 
sor,  Bal.  sard,  N.  Bal.  5dr^A,  Kurd,  sdr,  Oss.  saZd 

r  >  a. 

§  68,  The  change  of  r  to  «  is  very  common  in  the  Middle  and 
New  Indian  dialects.  In  the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  extremely  rare. 


VOWELS  33 

a.  Indican.  Skt.  vrddha  '  large,'  Prak.  vaddha,  viddha,  viiddha, 
Pali  vaddha,  viddha,  huddha,  viiddha,  Ass.  bar,  Naip.  hard, 
Kasm.  hor,  hod,  Ur.,  Bang,  hada,  E.  Hindi  hard,  hard,  haddd, 
Hindi  hadd,  Panj.  vaddd,  W.  Panj.  haddd,  Sindhl  vado,  Guj. 
vado,  Gyp.  haro,  but  Skt.  vrddha  '  old,'  Ur.  hurhd,  hildi,  Bang. 
6«(f7a,  Hindi  huddha,  hfidhd,  Panj.  hiidhd,  Sindhl  hiidho,  hudho, 
Guj.  hurhd.  Skt.  vrsabha  '  bull,'  Prak.  vasaha,  Saur.  Prak. 
vusaha,  Pali  vasahha.  Skt.  (/r/^a  'house,'  Pali  ^a^a,  ghara, 
geha,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt,  mrttiJcd  '  earth,'  Prak.  mattid, 
Pali  maftiJcd,  Naip.  mdmto,  Kasm.  w^ic,  Ur.,  Bang.  w^a^T,  Hindi, 
Panj.  maftJ,  miftJ,  mdfJ,  Sindhl  w^.^^,  Guj.  ?natfl,  mittl,  mdti, 
Mar.  w?a^*.  Skt.  mrta  'dead,'  Prak.  maa,  nma,  Mag.  Prak. 
made,  Ur.  mala,  Hindi  mud,  Panj.  muia,  Sindhi  muo,  Guj. 
miivmh,  Mar.  meUm,  Simh.  wm?a.  Gyp.  W2M?o. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  prdahu  '  leopard,'  New  Pers.  pilang,  palang, 
Afy.  prdng. 

r  >  ra. 

§  69.     The  change  of  r  to  ra  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vrlcsa  'tree,'  Prak.  vracha  {inscriptions  of 
Girnar),  ridikha,  riccha,  riJcJcha,  Pali  rukhha,  Ur.  rilkha,  Hindi 
hrich,  Mar.  rUkh,  Simh.  ruh,  rih.  Gyp.  ruh  [According  to 
Pischel  §  320  Prak.  rukkha  (and  its  New  Ind.  derivatives)  is 
derived  from  Skt.  ruJcsa,  not  vrksa.] 

r  >  ir. 

§  70.     This  change,   like  the  one  discussed  in  the  preceding 
section,  occurs  very  rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ff^;/; 'brahmanical  priest,' Pali  mft;y a.  Skt. 
vrsa  '  Taurus '  (in  the  Zodiac),  Pali  vusa,  Sindhi  virJchu. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Jcdrdma  'worm,'  New  Pers.  Jcirm,  etc.  (see 
§67). 

r  >  i. 

§  71.     The  change  of  r  to  i  occurs  with  great  frequency  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 


34  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Jcrta  •  done,'  Prak.  (Shahbfizgarhi  inscrip- 
tions), Jcita,  Mag.  Prak.  Jaidc,  Mahar.  Prak.  Icaya,  Pais.  Prak. 
kafa,  Ardhamag.,  Avant.,  Sak.  Prak.  JcaJa,  Apab.  Prak.  Jcidu, 
Pali  kata,  kaia,  Biharl  kail,  kail,  kayal,  Old  Hindi  kiiya,  Sindhi 
kid.  Skt.  kr^Mvia  '  wretched,'  Apab.  Prak.  kivanu.  Skt.  mrga 
'deer,'  Pali  niiga,  maga  (cf.  Skt.  mrdatdka  'having  a  deer-sign, 
moon,'  Prak,  miarhka).  Skt.  rsi  '  sage,'  Prak.  isi,  7'isi,  Pali  isi, 
Simh.  rusi,  Gyp.  rasdy.  Skt.  grdlira  'vidture,'  6aur.  Prak. 
giddha,  Pali  giddha,  gijjha,  gaddha.  Bang,  gidh,  BiharT  gJdh, 
gidlivd,  Hindi  giddh,  gidh,  Panj.  giddh,  Sindhl  gijh,  Guj.,  Mar. 
gidharli,  gid{li).  Skt.  ghrta  '  melted  butter,'  Prak.  gliaya,  Pali 
ghata,  Ur.  ghia,  Bang.  gJii,  Hindi,  Panj.  gJu,  ghin,  Sindhl  gihu, 
Guj.,  Mar.  ghi,  Gyp.  khil,  Anglo-Ind.  ghee.  Skt.  srtdga  'horn,' 
Prak.  simga,  samga,  Pali  simga,  Ur.  simgd.  Bang.  6'i)»(jf,  Hindi 
sm^,  Panj.  simg,  Sindhl  sifdu,  Guj.,  Mar.  simg.  Gyp.  s?«^.  Skt. 
hrdaya  '  heart,'  Prak.  Jiia{y)a,  Pais.  Prak.  liitaaka,  Pali  Jiadaya, 
Ass.,  Ur.,  Biharl  Aia,  Hindi  /w'ya,  Panj.  hiydm,  liidum,  Sindhl 
Jiimdmu,  Mar.  liiyyd,  Jiiyem,  Gyp.  (y)iZo.  Skt.  prsijia  'back,' 
^vs^.  pattjii,  piWii,  pidthi,  Jaina  Prak.,  PaU  ^?ff/«',  Ur.  ^;I//ta, 
pithi,  Bang.,  Hindi  pith,  Panj.  i?i^^^,  puttli,  Sindhl  putht,  Guj. 
^^f^,  ^M.#^,  Mar.  pdth,  putlid,  Simh.  i^ifa.  Gyp.  piisto.  Skt. 
^r5wa  'thirst,'  Prak.  tanhd,  Pali  ianlid,  tinlid,  tasind,  Hindi 
tirakkhd,  tinakhd,  Panj.  ^i/ia,  Sindhl  fill,  lihd'i.  Mar.  tahdn. 

b.  Iranian,  Av.  tarsna  '  thirst,'  Phi.  ^is«.  New  Pers.  tis, 
Waxi  tax{i),  Siyn.  ^a^wa,  Sarq.  tufi^),  Yidg.  trusna,  Afy.  toiai, 
Bal.  tunnag,  tiinag,  N.  Bal.  fAz<n,  Kurd,  /i  Av.  zdrdlaya 
'heart,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  dd,  Bal.  ^-/rtZe,  etc.  (see  §  67).  Av. 
ardsa  '  bear,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  xirs,  Kurd,  mrc,  Mrs,  hire,  etc. 
(see  §  67).  Av.  gsrdpta  'seized,'  New  Pers.  girlftah,  Maz.  gitah, 
Kas.  g'-aft,  Bal.  gipta. 

r  >  ri. 

§  72.  The  change  of  r  to  ri  occurs  only  initially,  and  only  in 
semitatsamas  or  tatsamas  in  the  New  Indian  dialects.  Tlie  phe- 
nomenon is  not  infrequent  in  Hindi  and  Panjabi ;    Sindhi  and 


VOWELS  35 

Gujarati  show  fewer  examples  of  it,  and  it  is  very  uncommon  in 
Uriya,  Bangall,  and  Marathl. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rddha  '  prosperity,'  Prak.  riddJii,  iddhi,  Pali 
iddlii.  Skt.  rlcsa  'bear,' Prak.  riJcJcJia,  rkcJia,  Pali  ilcka,  accha, 
is{s)a,  Ur.  (rare)  richa,  Biharl  rich,  rlM,  Hindi  rich,  Panj.  ricch, 
Sindhi  richu,  Giij.  rich,  Mar.  rts.  Skt.  grhastha  '  householder,' 
Hindi  grihastha,  Panj.  g{a)risaU,  Sindhi  grihastu,  Guj.  grastha. 

r  >  ur. 

§  73.  The  change  of  r  to  ur  is  frequent  only  in  Pahlavi  and 
New  Persian.     Elsewhere  it  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Tjdrdsa  'high,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  hurz,  Kurd. 
harz,  Oss.  harzond.  Av.  pgrdna  '  full,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  jpur. 
A  v.  pdrDsahi  'thou  askest,'  Old  Pers,  patiparsahy.  Phi.  pursl- 
tano,  New  Pers.  purstdan,  WaxI,  Sarq.  porsam,  Afy.  pust, 
Kurd,  pirsin,  Dig.  Oss.  farsun,  Tag.  farsin.  Av.  mdrdya  '  bird,' 
Phi.  nmry,  murv,  New  Pers.  mury,  Maz.  vnary,  Afy.  marya, 
Kurd.  mrisJc,  Oss.  mary. 

f  >  u. 

§  74.  The  change  of  r  to  w  is  very  common  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  As  has  been  noted  in  §  66,  r  becomes 
u  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  labials. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  prthivl  'earth,'  Prak.  piidhcm,  piihuvl,  pu- 
havi,  Pali  patJiavl,  pathavJ,  pidhuvi,  puthavl.  Old  'RmdH  puhumi. 
Skt.  mrnala  'lotus-fibre,'  Prak.  mundia,  Pali  mulala.  Skt.  rtu 
'  season,'  Prak.  u{d)'ii,  riu,  Pali  idu,  Sindhi  ruti,  Guj.  rid{u). 
Mar.  ridfi.  Skt.  vrsH  '  rain,'  Prak.  mdihl,  vittM,  Pali  vutthi. 
Skt.  vrddha  '  old,'  Ur.  hurhd,  hfuU,  Bang,  hudd,  Hindi  htidcJJid, 
htidhd,  Panj.  hiidlid,  Sindhi  hudho,  Imdho,  Guj.  hurho  (cf.  §  68). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  parsti  '  back,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  prist,  Waxi 
part,  Maz.  past,  N.  Bal.  phut,  Kurd,  pnst,  Zaza  past.  Av. 
kdrdnaoiti  '  makes,'  Paz.  liunom.  New  Pers.  Imnad,  Gil.  huclan, 
Jcardan,  Waxi  caram,  Siy.  kinam,  Sarq.  kanam,  Bal.  kanag, 
N.  Bal.  khanay,  Kurd,  kirin.  Dig.  Oss.  kJianun,  Tag.  khanin  (cf. 

D  2 


36  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

also  Skt.  akrnavam  '  I  did,'  Old  Pers.  aJcunavam  ;  Skt.  akrnot 
*  did/  Old  Pers.  ahunaus,  as  well  as  Av.  Jcjrota  '  done,'  Bal.  hit, 
N.  Bal.  hhuea).  Av.  vordhha  '  kidney,'  Phi.  gurtak,  New  Pers. 
giirdah,  Waxi  i'a?A;,  Bal.  gidtiy.  Av.  fratjrdsaiti  '  fears,'  Phi. 
farsifano,  My.  tarliedal,  Bal.  triisag,  tursay,  N.  Bal.  thursay, 
Kurd,  tirsin,  Dig.  Oss.  tharsun,  Tag.  tharsin. 

[Somewhat  similar  to  r  >  m  is  r  >  6  before  sibilants  in  Waxi, 
e.  g.  Av.  Jcarsfa  *  ploughed,'  Waxi  Z;o5^.] 

r  >  ru. 

§  75.     The  change  of  r  to  rit  occurs  but  rarely,  and  like  the 
change  of  r  to  ri  (cf.  §  72)  it  is  found  only  initially. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vrJcsa  '  tree,'  Prak.  niJckJia,  rlJckha,  ricclia, 
vracha,  Pali  rukJcha,  Ur.  riiJcha,  Mar.  riikh,  Siiiih.  r^tZ/•,  riZ;,  Gyp. 
ruk,  etc.  (see  §  69). 

r  >  a. 
§  76.     The  change  of  r  to  a  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  j)rstha  'back,'  Mar.  path,  imtha,  etc.  (see 
§  71).    Skt.  lirsi  '  agriculture,'  Pali  Jcasi,  Ur.  cdsa,  tiisa,  Bang.  cds. 

r  >  t. 

§  77.     The  change  of  r  to  i  is  found  very  rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  prstha  '  back,'  Ur.  pitha,  irltlii,  Bang.,  Hindi 
pith,  etc.  (see  §  71). 

b.  Iranian.    Av.  parsti  '  back,'  Kurd,  plst,  pist,  etc.  (see  §  74). 

r  >  e. 

§  78.     The  change  of  r  to  I  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  grha  '  house '  beside  geha,  Prak.  geha,  Pali 
geha,  ghara,  gaha,  Old  Hindi  geha,  Mar.  geh,  Simh.  ge,  geya, 
Gyp.  hher,  Jcyel,  etc.  (see  §  67). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  var.ysa  '  forest,'  Phi.  vesaJc,  New  Pers.  hesah, 
Kas.  visa,  Maz.,  Tal.  vise,  Kurd.  visa. 

r  >  0. 

§  79.     The  change  of  r  to  o,  like  the  other  developments  of 


VOWELS  37 

Indo-Iranian  r  considered  in  the  sections  immediately  preceding, 
occurs  but  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mrsd  '■  falsely,'  Prak.  mosa,  musa,  Pali  musa 
(in  like  manner  Skt.  mrsavadin  '  lying/  Prak.  mosavda,  musdvda, 
Pali  musdvddin). 

r  >  al. 

§  80.  In  the  Indian  dialects  r  becomes  al  apparently  only  in 
the  Magadlil  Prakrit.  The  Iranian  dialects  show  a  few  examples 
of  a  development  of  al  from  an  original  r. 

■  a.  Indian.  Skt.  Jcrtvd  'having  done,'  Prak.  Jcarid,  Mag. 
Prak.  Jialid,  Bihari  Z:a(r)i,  Hindi  kar{i).  Skt.  dhrta  'held,' 
Prak.  dharia,  Mag.  Prak.  dJialide,  Bihari  dha'il,  dhdil,  dhaijal 
(in  this  word  the  Mag.  I  has  been  elided,  wliile  the  Mag.  d  has 
become  I  as  in  all  Bihari  perfect  participles). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vdrdhka  '  kidney,'  Waxi  vaTk,  etc.  (see  §  74). 
Av.  vardTia  'leaf,'  Phi.  varg,  New  Pers.  l>arg,  Gab.  varah,  Ka§. 
valg,  Maz.  varaJc,  Gil.  valg,  valk,  Judaeo-Pers.,  Kurd.  valg. 

r  >  r. 

§  81.  The  change  of  r  to  r  seems  to  occur  only  after  t  and 
before  vowels,  and  it  is  apparently  confined  to  the  Sindhi. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  jdmdtrha  '  son-in-law,'  Prak.  jdjudiia,  Sindhi 

Jdtro.      Skt.    mdfrJca   'maternal    micle,'   Prak.    mdila,    Sindhi 

mdtre. 

§  82.  Numerous  examples  may  be  cited  where  Indo-Iranian  r 
develops  into  different  vowels  in  the  same  word  in  the  same  period 
and  dialect. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  trna  '  grass,' Apab.  Prak.  trmi,  tami,  timi, 

etc.  (see  §  66).     Skt.  grim  '  house,'  Pali  ghara,  gaha,  geha,  etc. 

(see  §  67).     Skt.  mrtWid  '  earth,'  Hindi,  Panj.,  Guj.  tnattl,  mdti, 

mitti,  etc.  (see  §  68).     Skt.  vrnta  '  stem  of  a  flower,'  Prak.  vinta, 

venta,  vonta,  Pali  vanta.     Skt.  rsi  '  sage,'  Prak.  isi,  risi,  etc. 

(see  §  71).     Skt.  2)rstJia  '  back,'  Prak.  paffhi,  2nttjd,  pidjki,  Panj. 

pitth,  putth,  Guj.  pith,  puth,  Mar.  pdth,  pidjia,  etc.  (see  §  71). 


38  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Skt.  trsnd  '  tliirst,'  Pali  ilnha,  tanhct,  tasind,  etc.  (see  §  71).    Skt 

mrsd  *  falsely,'  Prak.  mosd,  nmsd,  musd,  etc.  (see  §  79). 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  apdrdndyii  'boy,'  New  Pers.  harnd,  hirnd, 

etc.  (see  §  67).     Av.  hdrdma  '  worm,'  Kurd,  harm,  Jcurum,  etc. 

(see  §  67).     Skt.  ])rdahu  '  leopard,'  New  Pers.  inlang,  imlang, 

etc.  (see  §  68).     Av.  hdrdnaoiti  '■  makes,'  Gil.  Jcudan,  Jcardan, 

etc.  (see  §  74). 

The  great  variety  of  changes  undergone  by  Indo-Iranian  r  in  the 
various  Indo-Iranian  dialects  is  obvious.  Thus  the  r  of  Skt. 
mrttiJca  '  earth '  >  a,  i,  a  ;  the  r  of  Skt.  grha  '  house '  >  a,  e;  of 
Skt.  vrddlia  '  large '  >  a,  w,  o  ;  of  Skt.  prdha  '  back '  >  a,  i,  u,  a, 
I ;  of  Skt.  mrsd  '  falsely '  >  ««,  m,  o.  In  hke  manner  the  r  of  Av. 
pdrdsahi  '  thou  askest '  >  a,  i,  u,  6  ;  and  of  Av.  i)arsti  '  back  '  > 
a,  i,  M,  i 


§  83.  Indo-Iranian  f,  arising  from  Indo-Germanic  f,  Z,  stands 
in  Indian  in  ablaut  with  ^r,  wr  (before  consonants),  ir,  iir  (before 
vowels),  ari,  rd  (Wackernagel,  AUind.  Gramm.,  i.  22-30;  Hirt, 
Indogerm.  Ahlaut,  48-49,  54-55,  60,  70-71,  76  sqq.).  In  Iranian 
the  Indo-Iranian  f  is  represented  by  ar  (Bartholomae,  Grundr.  der 
iran.  Philol.,  i.  25).  The  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects 
liave  in  general  retained  without  change  the  old  representations  of 
Indo-Iranian  f. 

a.-b.  Indo-Iranian.  Skt.  tirtlia  '  across,'  Prak.  tittha,  fuha, 
Pali  tittha ;  Wax!  tiirt  Skt.  urmi  '  wave  ' ;  Av.  vardmi,  Sarq. 
varm,  Bal.  gvarm.  Skt.  dirglia  '  long,'  Prak,  diraha,  dlha, 
diggha,  PaU  dlgJia,  Sindhi  drigho  ;  Av.  dardya,  Old  Pers.  darga, 
New  Pers.  dirdz,  Afy.  Idrya,  Bal.  drdj,  N.  Bal.  drdz,  Kurd. 
dirU,  Zaza  (?ar^,  Oss.  rZary. 


§  84.  Indo-Germanic  I  is  lost  entirely  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects,  and  it  disappeared  from  the  Iranian  dialects 


VOWELS  39 

in  the  pre-Iranian  period.     In  Old  Indian  I  is  very  rare.     The 
developments  of  I  in  Middle  Indian  were  analogous  to  those  of  r. 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  klpfa  '  done/  Prak,  kilitta,  Pali  happifa. 


e  =  e. 
§  85.     Indo-Iranian  e  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  In  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects  e  is  long 
only  before  vowels  and  single  consonants.  Before  consonant- 
groups  it  is  to  be  regarded  as  short.  In  Assamese  e  is  invariably 
short. 

Skt.  deva  '  god,'  Prak.  dm,  Pali  deva,  Kasm.  day,  Ur.,  Bang. 
de,  Hindi  deo,  deu,  Panj.,  Sindhi  deu.  Gyp.  devel,  del  Skt. 
prema  'love,'  Prak.  pemma,  Pali  pema,  New  Indian  dialects 
2){r)em. 

b.  Iranian.  The  confusion  in  New  Persian  of  the  majJiul  e 
with  the  malrilf  I  has  been  noted  above,  §  35.  Tlie  Caspian 
dialects  also  show  this  confusion,  while  the  Judaeo-Persian,  in 
common  with  several  other  Eastern  Persian  dialects,  preserves 
carefully  the  distinction  between  e  and  f, 

Av.  daeva  '  demon,'  Phi,  New  Pers.  dev,  Waxi  liv,  Siy.  hiv, 
Sarq.  hev.  Av.  haca  '■  from  '  +  ahairi  '  beneath,'  Phi.  a^er,  Paz. 
azer,  New  Pers.  zir,  Siv.  si,  Zaf.  ^er,  other  Central  dialects  jir, 
Samm.  jer,  Tal.  jiar,  Judaeo-Pers.  zer,  Kurd.  zlr.  Av.  vaeti 
*  willow,'  Phi.  vet.  New  Pers.  hed,  Pamir  dialects  vid.  Gab.  vid. 
Siv.  VI,  Zaf.,  Kas.  ve.  Von.  vid,  Kuhr.  vet,  Nat.  vJd,  Afy.  vala, 
N.  Bal.  ged,  Kurd,  vi,  bi{h). 

e  >  a. 
§  86.     The   change   of  c  to  a  is   not   frequent.     In  Western 
Bangali,  however,  several   instances  of  a   are   foimd  where  the 
Eastern  Bangali  keeps  the  original  e  unchanged  (e.  g.   Skt.   eJca 
'  one,'  E.  Bang.  eJia,  W.  Bang.  «/t). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mleccha  '  barbarian,'  Prak.  milicclm,  Pali 
milalcklm.     Skt.  ekddasa  '  eleven,'  Prak.  earalia,  Pali  eJcadasa, 


40  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

eJcarasa,  Kasm.  Tcah,  Ur.,  Bang,  egara,  Bihari  egyarah,  Hindi 
igarali,  gijdrah,  Panj.  gidrdm,  Sindhi  iJcdraJiani,  yaraham,  Guj. 
agidr,  Mar.  alcard. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vaeti  '  willow,'  Afy.  vala,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §).  Av.  aesma  'fuel,'  Phi.  {h)emm,  Paz.,  New  Pers. 
hemtn,  Gab.  i^w^a,  Kas.,  Kulir.  {li)cmm,  Kui'd.  Iiazang. 

e  >  i. 

§  87.  The  change  of  e  to  i  is  found  both  in  the  Indian  and  in 
the  Iranian  dialects.  In  the  Indian  dialects  the  change  occurs 
more  frequently  in  the  West  than  in  the  East.  Among  the 
Iranian  dialects  the  Ossetish  regularly  develops  i  from  e  before  n. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vedand  'pain,'  Prak.  viand,  veand,  Pali 
vcdand.  Skt.  devara  '  brother-in-law,'  Prak.  diara,  devara,  Pah 
devara,  Ur.  deyura,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  devar,  dcyar,  Sindhi 
deru,  Guj.  deur,  der,  Mar.  devar,  deyar.  Skt.  eJcddasa  'eleven,* 
Hindi  igdrah,  gydrah,  Sindhi  ilMraham,  ydraham,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §).     Skt.  j)rativesalia  'neighbouring,'  Vali  ])ativissaha. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  daeza  'garden,'  Old  Pers.  TrapdJSettro?,  Phi. 
diz,  New  Pers.  diz,  dis,  dtz.  Phi.  mehmdn  '  guest,'  New  Pers. 
melimdn,  mihmdn,  Afy.  melma,  Kurd,  mevdn.  Old  Pers.  naiha 
'good,'  Phi.  nev{ah),  New  Pers.  ?ie]c{d),  niJco.  Av.  axsama  'green,' 
Phi.,  New  Pers.  xasln,  Siy.  soin,  Sarq.  xoin,  Yidg,  axsln,  Afy. 
xm,  §m,  Kurd.  {ha)sTn,  Oss.  axsinag.  Skt.  jphena  '  foam,'  Dig. 
Oss.  finkha,  Tag.  JinJch. 

e  >  a. 

§  88.     The  change  of  e  to  a  is  excessively  rare, 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  Jceyura  '  bracelet,'  Pali  hdyura. 

e  >  I. 

§  89.  The  change  of  e  to  «  is  rare  both  in  the  Indian  and  in 
the  Iranian  dialects,  excepting  in  Pazand  and  New  Persian,  where 
e  becomes  I  regularly  before  a  nasaL 

a.  Indian.      Skt.    tnegha   'cloud,'   Prak.   meha,  Pais.    Prak. 


VOWELS  41 

meJcha,  Pali  mcglia,  Hindi  mimli,  memli,  Panj.  miniJi,  nuham, 
Siiidhi  mlmlm. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vaena  'nose,'  Phi.  venlk,  hemic,  Paz.  vin% 
New  Pers.  blm,  Samn.  vlni,  Maz.  vem,  Tal.  vim,  Kurd,  heriy 
hivil,  E.  Kurd,  haval.  Av.  axsaena  'blue,'  Phi,  New  Pers. 
xasm,  Yidg.  axsln,  Afy.  icew,  ^m^,  Kurd.  {Jta)stn,  etc.  (see  §  87). 
Av.  daeman  'glance,'  Phi.  andemanJcar,  Paz.  andmiam,  New 
Pers.  dmi,  Sir.,  Zaf.,  Kas.  dffw,  Kuhr.  dim,  dum,  Afy.  Zew?a,  Bal. 
dem,  N.  Bal.  de{m)v,  Kurd.  c?ew?.  Av.  spaeta  '  white,'  Phi.  5/;e^, 
New  Pers.  si]aed,  sa2)ed,  isped,  Zaf.  5o65,  Kas.  ashed,  Kuhr.  ashe, 
Sarq.  spaid  [ai  of  secondary  development,  cf.  New  Pers.  der 
'long,'  Sarq.  loan-word  dair),  Yidg.  sjn,  Kurd.  sipt.  Av.  accTa 
'ice,'  Paz.  yah.  New  Pers.  ^a^',  WaxI,  Siy.  yax,  Yidg.  ^^.r, 
Yayn.  tx,  Dig.  Oss.  ?/a^',  Tag.  ix.  Av.  /^ae^w  '  bridge,'  Dig.  Oss. 
xed.  Tag.  xul 

e  >  0. 

§  90.     The  change  of  e  to  o  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vestana  '  crown,'  Pali  vetJiana,  Simh.  votunu, 
New  Siriili.  otimna. 

e  >  ai. 

§  91.     Tlie  change  of  e  to  a  i  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  x^aeda  '  sweat,'  Phi.  x^ai,  New  Pers.  x^ai, 
WaxI  xil,  Sarq.  xaib,  Afy.  ^ZJ^'aZe,  Bal.  ZtetZ,  N.  Bal.  Mb,  Kurd. 
a;M,  xoi,  xoJi,  Oss.  it^ad 

§  92.     The  change  oi  e  to  y  is  very  rare  and  it  occurs  only 
initially.     (Tliis  y  is  probably  really  prothetic.) 

a.  Sanskrit  eJca  '  one,'  Prak.  eJcka,  Pali  eka,  Kasm.  akh,  Ur., 
Bang,  eka,  W.  Bang,  ak,  Biharl  yak,  ek.  Old  Hindi  ik{k),  Hindi 
ek,  Panj.  ik,  Sindhi  hikii,  {Ji)ekii,  hikldo,  hekido,  Guj.  ek,  dik, 
Mar.  ek,  yek.  Gyp.  yck,  yekh. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  aeva  '  one,'  Old  Pers.  aiva.  Phi.  ev{ak),  Paz., 
New  Pers.  ya/;,  Von.  yav,  iki,  Kuhr.  ?/,  *,  ik,  WaxI  «(t;),  Siy. «/««', 


42  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

yi,  yu,  yii,  Sarq.  iv,  I,  Sangl.  vak,  Minj.  yao,  Afy.  yav,  Bal.  eyok, 
Kurd,  ^yt^,  Dig.  Oss.  i/ait,  Tag.  «/m.  Av.  acxa  '  ice,'  Paz.  ?/a^, 
New  Pers.,  WaxT,  Siy.  ?/aa;,  Yidg.  yux,  Dig.  Oss.  2/^-^,  etc. 
(see  §  89). 

Aphacresis  of  e. 

§  93.     The  loss  of  initial  e  occurs  with  extreme  rarity. 
a.  Indian.     Skt,  eranda  '  castor-oil  tree,'  Hindi  remdl. 

Ajyocope  of  e. 

§  94.  Final  e  is  lost  in  the  New  Indian  dialects  in  the  majority 
of  instances. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  talc  'beneath,'  Ur.  tal{f^,  Hindi  tale,  Guj., 

Mar.  tal,  tal.     Skt.  sardge  '  with,'  Ur.  samge,  Hindi,  Panj.  samn, 

Sindhi  sani,  Guj.  samn,  Mar.  samgmi. 

The  multiform  changes  to  which  a  final  e  is  subject  in  the  New 
Indian  dialects  may  be  well  illustrated  from  the  modern  repre- 
sentatives of  Old  Indian  *pasce  for  the  Sanskrit  pascat  '  after.' 

Skt.  *pasce  '  after,'  Apab.  Prak.  pacchai,  Ur.  pache,  pachu, 

Bang,  piche,  pacche,    Hindi  pachc,  piclie,  pachu,  Panj.  piche, 

pichom,  Sindhi  poe,  puqm,  Guj.  pache,  pacht,  pacho. 


at  =  at. 

§  95.  Indo-Iranian  di  has  been  lost  in  the  Indo-Iranian  dia- 
lects. The  few  cases  in  the  Iranian  dialects  in  which  ai  is  appar- 
ently retained  show  in  reality  a  change  of  ai  to  ay  (cf.  §  108). 

b.  Iranian.     A  v.  rdi  '  radiance,'  New  Pers.  ray.     [New  Pers. 
ray  is,  however,  to  be  compared  rather  with  Av.  gen.  sg.  *m?/o.] 

di  >  ai. 

§  96.     The  change  of  di  to  ai  occurs  very  rarely. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  sdinya  'soldier,'  Prak.  sainna,  senna,  Pali 
seniya. 


VOWELS  43 

di  >  t, 

§  97.     The  change  of  di  to  I  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhairya  'firmness,'  Prak.  dlnra,  dhijja,  Ur., 
Sindhi,  Guj.,  Mar.  dhir. 

di  >  e. 

§  98.  The  change  of  rti  to  e  is  the  normal  one  to  which  di  is 
subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects,  where  it  is  found 
very  frequently. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sdila  'hill,'  Prak.,  Pali  sela.  Skt.  Tcdivarta 
'fisherman,'  Prak.,  Pali  Jcevaffa,  Hindi  Jcevat.  Skt.  toila  'oil,' 
Prak.,  Pali  telJa,  New  Ind.  dialects  tel.  Skt.  gdirika  'red 
chalk/  Pali  gcriJca,  Ur.  gfru,  Hindi  genJ,  Guj.  geru,  Mar.  gerii. 


0=0. 

§  99.  Indo-Iranian  o  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects.  In  Assamese  o,  although 
it  is  retained  in  the  script,  is  pronounced  u.  The  New  Persian 
presents  the  same  confusion  of  the  majhid  o  and  the  ma]ruf  u 
which  has  already  been  observed  in  the  case  of  e  and  t  (see  §§  35, 
85).  The  Judaeo-Persian,  like  the  majority  of  the  East  Iranian 
dialects,  observes  carefully  the  distinction  between  o  and  tl  (cf. 
§  85). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hlwjana  'food,' Prak.  hlwana,  Pali  hJiojana. 
Skt.  yoJctra  'yoke,'  Pali  yotta,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  jot, 
Sindhi  joto,  Guj.  jotar,  Mar.  jot. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  raocah  '  day,'  Old  Pers.  raticaJi,  Plil.  roc. 
New  Pers.  ros,  Gab.  riij,  Caspian  dialects  nl,  excepting  Kas.  rU, 
Tal.  ro^,  riU,  WaxI  rmij,  Afy.  rvaj,  Bal.  7vc,  N.  Bal.  ros,  Kurd. 
n«i,  >-o(i).  Av.  gaosa  '  ear,'  Old  Pers.  gausa,  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
gos,  Sir.,  Bahb.  giis,  Nay.  gus,  WaxI  yiis,  yis,  Siyn.  yii^,  Sarq. 
ymd  {au  of  secondary  development),  Yidg.  ytl,  Afy.  yvaiy,  Bal. 
gos,  Kurd,  gilh,  Dig.  Oss.  yos,  Tag.  qus.  Av.  baoibi  '  perfume,' 
Phi.  bodf  boi,  New  Pers.  bd{i),  Wax!  vul,  Sarq.  bao,  Yayn.  «;w(?, 


44  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Bal.  hocl^  N.  Bal.  hub,  hoz,  Oss.  hud.     Av.  raola  '  face/  Phi.  rod, 
New  Pers.  ro(i),  Judaeo-Pers.  rdi. 

0  >  au. 

§  100.     The  change  of  o  to  ati  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  saoJcjntavant  'sulphurous,'  Paz,  saivagand. 
New  Pers.  saugand. 

6  >  a. 

§  101.  The  change  of  o  to  a  is  not  common  either  in  the  Indian 
or  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  godhnma  '  wheat/  Apab.  Prak.  gohumu,  Pali 
godhfwta.  Ass.  glicmliu,  Naip.  gahum,  Ur.  gahama,  gama.  Bang. 
gom,  gam,  Biharl  golmm,  Hindi  gd{m)hum,  gehum,  gheuni,  Panj. 
gJicuni,  Sindhi  gehum,  Guj.  gliafm,  Gyp.  giv. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  saocayahl  '  shalt  burn/  Phi.  soxtano,  socinl- 
tano.  New  Pers.  soxtan.  Gab.  sajan,  Maz.,  Gil.  Vsiij,  Sarq.  sau;s, 
Afy.  semi,  sejal,  Bal.  sucag,  N.  Bal.  5wmy  (intrans.),  Bal.  socag, 
N.  Bal.  so,?ay  (trans.),  Kurd,  satin,  Dig.  Oss.  5oj2/»,  Tag.  siljin.  Av, 
sraoni  'loin,'  Plil.  sarilJc,  sarin,  New  Pers.  saron,  surin,  WaxI 
sunj,  Sly.  saun,  Sarq.  xaim,  Bal.  sarcn.  New  Pers.  j^;o-?  'parts 
about  the  nose,'  Gab.  puz,  Sangl.  fuzih,  Minj.  fosJca,  Afy.  ^o^-a, 
paza,  Bal,  jpo(w)^,  N,  Bal,  phoniz,  Kurd,  ^m^,  ^o^.  Dig.  Oss.  jinje, 
Tag.  y?w5r. 

0  >  i, 

§  102.     The  change  of  o  to  i  is  excessively  rare. 

b,  Iranian,     Av,  gaosa  '  ear,'  WaxI  yis,  yils,  etc,  (see  §  99). 

0  >  II. 

§  103,  Tlie  change  of  6  to  u  is  common  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects.  As  in  all  cases  of  shortening,  the  phe- 
nomenon here  discussed  occurs  especially  before  double  consonants 
or  consonant-groups, 

a,  Indian,     The  change  of  o  to  u  in  the  New  Indian  dialects 

occurs  more  frequently  in  the  West  than  in  the  East,  although 


VOWELS  45 

the  Bangall  often  has  u  where  the  other  New  Indian  dialects 
show  0. 

Skt.  rocati  'shines,'  Prak.  rucca'i^  Mag.  Prak.  loadi,  Pali 
ruccati,  rocati.  Skt.  jyotsna  '■  moon-lit  night,'  Prak.  jomM,  Pali 
jm'nJid.  Skt.  djas  *  strength,'  Jrdna  Prak.  uya,  Pali  dja.  Skt. 
lotyam  '■  in  a  small  water-pot,'  E.  New  Ind,  dialects  lofiyct,  W. 
New  Ind.  dialects  lutiyd.  Skt.,  Pali  lohaJcdra  'blacksmith,' 
Sindhi  luharu. 

Here  too  may  be  considered  the  Kasmiri  o,  il  arising  from  o 
through  the  umlaut  of  a  following  7,  e.  g.  Kasm.  hror  '  tom-cat,' 
fern.  Iror  (written  brctru) ;  Skt.  vrddha  '  large,'  Kasm.  hodd 
(written  hadu),  fem.  had  (written  hadu),  etc.  (see  §  68). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Jcaofa  '  hill,'  Old  Pers.  Jcaufa,  Phi.  kof,  New 
Pers.  JcOh,  kuh,  Kuhr.  Tcilfun,  mountain  Jewish  Jciif,  Afy.  kvah, 
Bal.  kopak,  N.  Bal.  khofay,  Kurd.  kuvi.  Av.  maoiri  '  ant,'  Phi., 
New  Pers.  mor,  Gab.  monk,  Kas.,  Von.  morctma,  Yidg.  muryohj 
Dig.  Oss.  muljug,  Tag.  maljig.  Av.  gaosa  '  ear,'  Sir.,  Bahb.  gus, 
etc.  (see  §  99).  New  Pers.  gosah  'corner,'  Kurd.  giU,  gusa, 
Bohtani  kusi. 

0  >  t. 

§  104.     The  change  of  o  to  *  is  rather  infrequent. 

b.  Iranian.  Some  of  the  New  Iranian  dialects  preserve  the 
transition-grade  ii. 

Phi.  mo{d),  mm  '  hair,'  New  Pers.  md%  Gab.  mid,  Siv.,  Bahb., 
Nay.,  Maz.  mi,  Gil.,  Tal.  mii,  other  Caspian  dialects  mU,  Bal. 
mud,  mid,  N.  Bal.  mid.     New  Pers.  tolah  'puppy,'  Siv.  tilu. 

0  >  il. 

§  105.  In  Pazand  and  New  Persian  Indo-Iranian  o  becomes  il 
regularly  before  m  or  n  (compare  the  analogous  change  in  these 
dialects  of  e  to  ?  before  nasals,  §  89).  In  Afyan  o  becomes  tc  before 
n,  but  it  remains  unchanged  before  m.  Elsewhere  the  change  is 
sporadic  only. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.   gaona  'colour,'  Phi.  giln{ak),  New  Pers. 


46  JXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

gun{ah),  Afy.  yiina.  Av.  haonia  '  Homa-plant,'  Phi.  hum,  Paz., 
New  Pers,  him,  Afy.  oma.  Av.  saocaydhi '  slialt  burn/  Maz.,  Gil. 
Vsiij,  Tag.  Oss.  stJjin,  etc.  (see  §  101).  Av.  raocah  '  day,'  Gab. 
rwj,  Tal.  roz,  ruz,  Kurd,  rilz,  Td{z),  etc.  (see  §  99).  Av.  draoya 
'  lie,'  Old  Pers.  dratiga,  Phi.  drog,  droy,  New  Pers.  diiroy,  dardy, 
Maz.  cZarzT,  dw%  Tal.  (Z«Z,  Sarq.  (Z«r<7,  Afy.  daroy,  Bal.  d{a)rOg, 
N.  Bal.  tZroy.  Av.  raoyna  '  oil,'  Phi.  roJcan,  royan,  New  Pers. 
rdyan,  Kurd.  rt7«. 

0  >  e. 

§  106.     The  change  of  o  to  e  is  found  with  some  frequency. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Pali  rohita  '  kind  of  fish,'  Ass.  ro,  E.  Hindi 
rcliu,  Hindi  rolm,  Panj.  rehu,  Simh.  rehe,  re.  Skt.  godhuma 
'wheat,'  Ass.  ghcmlm,  Hindi  gehum,  gJieum,  go{m)Jimh,  Panj. 
gJmm,  Sindhl  gehum,  etc.  (see  §  101).  Skt.  cora  'thief,'  Prak., 
Pali  com,  New  Ind.  dialects  cor,  excepting  Kasm.  cfir,  Simh. 
hera,  hora,  Gyp.  cor. 

0  >  va. 

§  107.  The  change  of  o  to  va  occurs  regularly  in  Afyan,  except- 
ing before  m,  where  o  is  retained,  and  before  n,  where  o  becomes  U 
(see  §  105). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gaosa  '  ear,'  Afy.  yvaiy,  etc.  (see  §  99).  Av. 
raocah  '  day,'  Afy.  rvaj,  etc.  (see  §  99). 


an  =  du. 

§  108.  The  Indo-Iranian  du  has  been  lost  in  the  Indo-Iranian 
dialects.  The  few  cases  in  which  du  has  apparently  been  retained 
in  the  Iranian  dialects  show  in  reality  a  change  of  du  to  dv  (cf. 
§  95). 

b.    Iranian.     Skt.  ndu  'ship,'  Av.   tidvaya  'navigable,'  Old 

Pers.  ndviyd  'fleet'  (?),  Phi.  ndvJcaJc,  ndvtdh,  New  Pers.  ndv. 
[The  New  Pers.  ndv  is,  however,  to  be  compared  rather  with  the 
Av.  gen.  sg.  ^ndvo.\ 


VOWELS  47 

0,21  >  ail. 

§  109.     The  change  of  au  to  au  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pCiura  'citizen,'  Prak.  paiira,  Pali  pora. 
Skt.  gdnrava  'respect,'  Prak.  gaiirava,  Saur.  Prak.  gorava. 
Skt.  mdiili  'garland,'  Prak.  maiill,  Pali  nioli. 

au  >  u. 

§  110.     The  change  of  au  to  u  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  JcauJcseyaka  '  sword,'  Prak.  hiikhheaa.  Skt. 
dduvarika  '  porter,'  Prak.  duvvaria,  Pali  dovarika.  Skt.  cdurya 
'  theft,'  Prak.  cdria,  Naip.  corl,  Ur.  cori,  Bang,  curl,  Hindi,  Mar. 
corl.     Skt.  dutsukya  'zeal,'  Prak.  usukka,  Pali  ussukka. 

du  >  u. 

§  111.     The  change  of  du  to  u  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sdurya  'heroism,'  Prak.  soria,  Sindhi 
surilial. 

du  >  0. 

§  112.  The  change  of  du  to  o  is  the  normal  one  to  wliich  Indo- 
Iranian  du  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects.  It 
may  also  be  noted  that  du  in  Assamese  script  is  always  pro- 
nounced  0. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kdumudi  'moonlight,'  Prak.  komiii,  Pali 
koniudi,  Gyp.  comut  'moon.'  Skt.  yduvana  'youth,'  Vrhk.  jovvana, 
Pali  yohhana,  Sindhi  jobhanu.  Skt.  dupamya  'analogy,'  Pali 
opamma.  Skt.  gdura  '  pale,'  Pali  gora,  New  Ind.  dialects  gord. 
Skt.  jJmidika  '  pouch,' Ur.,  ^ang.  jhfdl,  jJmli,  jholi,  Hindi  jholi, 
Guj.,  Mar.  jhop. 


SINGLE    CONSONANTS 

§  113.  The  Indo-Iranian  consonants  remain  for  the  most  part 
unchanged  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects.  The 
law  of  spirantization  which  sharply  distinguishes  the  Iranian  from 
the  Indian  dialects  is  still  operative,  and  all  phenomena  to  be 
discussed  in  the  following  chapter  must  be  considered  with  tliis 
fact  in  mind.  The  principal  changes  undergone  by  the  Indo- 
Iranian  single  consonants  are  in  general  easily  explicable.  Com- 
mon both  to  the  Indian  and  to  the  Iranian  dialects,  although  more 
frequent  in  the  latter,  is  the  change  of  an  original  voiced  consonant 
to  a  voiceless,  or  the  reverse.  Aspiration  and  deaspiration,  the 
loss  of  a  consonant  and  the  subsequent  insertion  oi  y  or  v  in  its 
place  to  avoid  a  resultant  hiatus,  are  the  most  striking  changes 
noted  in  the  Indian  dialects.  The  changes  presented  by  the 
Iranian  dialects  in  the  single  consonants  are  far  more  sporadic 
and  less  regular  than  those  which  are  found  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
In  the  Iranian  dialects  a  voiceless  intervocalic  consonant  regularly 
becomes  voiced.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  Indian  dialects 
have  preserved  the  original  Indo-Iranian  vowels  more  faitlifully 
than  the  Iranian  dialects  have,  but  that,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
Iranian  consonants  have  suffered  less  change  than  the  Indian. 

In  the  following  paragraplis  will  be  found  in  some  detail  the 
principal  changes  undergone  by  the  Indo-Iranian  consonants  in 
the  various  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

k  =  k 
§  114.     Indo-Iranian  k  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  49 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Jcathmjati  Hells,'  Prak.  Jcahaz,  Jcahei,  Pali 
Jmtheti,  Ur,,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi  kaJi,  Guj.  Jceh,  Simh. 
hiynnava.  Skt.  cha  '■  one,'  Prak.  elika,  Pali  clca,  Kasm.  akh,  Ur., 
Bang,  eka,  W.  Bang,  ah,  Biharl  tjak,  ek,  Old  Hindi  ik{k),  Hindi 
ek,  Panj.  ik,  Sindhi  Jiiku,  {h)cku,  hikido,  hekido,  Guj.  ek,  aik, 
Mar.  (y)ck,  Gyp.  yek,  yckli. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kaofa  '  hill,'  Old  Pers.  kaufa,  Phi.  kof(ak\ 
New  Pers.  koh,  Kuhr.  kufmij  Tat  yv?(^  Afy.  ^va&,  Bal.  X'o/^a^ 
N.  Bal.  khofayj  Kurd.  ^u«7i.  Av.  kdrdnaoiti  'makes,'  Old  Pers. 
kunavahy,  Phi.  karfanu,  New  Pers.  kardan,  WaxI  caram,  Siyn. 
kinam,  Sarq.  kanam,  Bal.  kanag,  N.  Bal.  khanay,  Kurd,  ^iriw 
Dig.  Oss.  khanun,  Tag.  kJianin. 

k  >  kh,  X. 

§  115.  In  the  Indian  dialects  the  aspirization  of  an  original  k  is 
only  sporadic,  but  the  Middle  and  New  Iranian  dialects  regularly 
change  k  into  the  spirant  x  internally  between  vowels.  In  North 
BalucI  k  becomes  kli  regularly  initially,  and  the  change  occurs 
uniformly  both  initially  and  finally  m  Ossetish. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kuh^a  '  hump-backed,'  Prak.,  Pali  kJiujja, 
Ur.  kilja,  Bang.  kti{ni)ja,  kuhjd,  Hindi  kiiJjja,  kuhhd,  kiihrd,  Panj. 
kubhd,  kuhd,  Sindhi  kuho,  Guj.  kiibaro,  Mar.  kuhadd,  kJiuh. 
Skt.  kdsa  'cough,'  Maliar.  Prak.  khdsa,  Pah  kdsa,  Hindi,  Panj., 
Sindhi  khdmst,  khdmsnd.  Skt.  ktij^cf'  '  well,'  Prak.  ku{v)a,  Pali 
kiijia,  Kasm.  kJiuh,  Ur.,  Bang,  kiid,  Hindi  kudm,  Panj.  klmhd, 
Sindhi  kJmJm,  Guj.,  Mar.  kiivo.  Skt.  krodaka  '  lap,'  Hindi  kor, 
Guj.  kJiolo.  Skt.  sukumdra  'youth,'  Prak.  sumdla,  sukumdla, 
Pali  sukhumdla,  sukumdra. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kafa  'foam,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  kaf,  WaxI 
xt{f,  Sarq.  xaf,  Bal.  kap,  Kurd,  kaf,  Dig.  Oss.  xaf{a),  Tag.  xaf. 
Av.  kahrkdsa  '  vulture,'  Plil.  kaJirkds,  kargas,  New  Pers.  kargas, 
Bal.  kargas,  N.  Bal.  khargaz,  Oss.  kJiarkh.  Av.  aJimdkdm  'of 
us,'  Old  Pers.  amdxam,  New  Pers.  iwa,  Kas.  {]i)omd,  hdnui,  Oss. 
max  GAv.  xsmdka  'yours,'  YAv.  ymmdka,  Paz.,  New  Pers. 
swma,  Bal.  lam,   Dig.  Oss.   smax,  Tag.   sumax.    Av.  niydka 

£ 


50  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

'  grandfather,'  Old  Pers.  apanycika,  Phi.  mjah,  New  Pers.  niyd,, 
Afy.  n'ika,  Bal.  iiahu,  N.  Bal.  naxo^  fern.  nahh. 

k  >g. 

§  116.  The  change  of  Z:  to  ^  is  not  frequent,  excepting  in  the 
Iranian  dialects  internally  between  vowels. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Pali  JcJra  '  parrot,'  Simh.  gird,  giravd,  kira. 
Skt.  marakata  '  emerald,'  Prak.  maragaya.  Skt.  sakala  '  whole,' 
Mahar.  Prak.  sayala,  Pali  sakala,  Bang,  sagun,  Bihari  sagar, 
Hindi  sagun,  sagrd,  Panj.  sagrd,  Sindhi  sagunu,  Guj.  saglo,  Mar. 
sagla,  Simh.  siyalii.  Skt.  kdka  '  crow,'  Prak.  kda.  Bang.,  Hindi, 
Panj.  kdg,  Sindhi  kdmgu.  Mar.  kdg. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ka  *  who  ?  '  New  Pers.  kill,  WaxI  kui,  koi, 
§iyn.  kai,  Sarq.  co?,  Bal.  kc,  N.  Bal.  Z;/iai,  Tur  Kurd,  go.  Dig. 
Oss.  Z:A(X,  Tag.  cl,  KamuntI  khi.  Av.  ydkard  '  liver,'  Phi.  jakar, 
yakar,  New  Pers.  j/^ar,  Bal.  jagar,  N.  Bal.  jayar,  Km:d.  JarZ;, 
Oss.  i^ar.  Av.  sukuruna  'porcupine,'  Plil.  sukur,  New  Pers. 
sugur{nah).  Gab.  sixwr,  Afy.  s/^yw,  skun,  Bal.  sikiin,  N.  Bal. 

A;  >  Z;/. 

§  117.     The  palatalization  of  k  to  k'l  is  found  in  Iranian. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kaofa  'hill,'  Kurd,  kiuh,  etc.  (see  §  114). 
Av.  Z:ate  'house'  Kas.,  Kulir.  kiyah,  Nat.  Av'a/i,  Yidg.  ktjc,  etc. 
(see  following  §). 

k  >  c,  c. 

§  118.  Tlie  change  of  k  to  c  is  very  rare  in  the  Indian  dialects, 
but  in  the  Iranian  dialects  c  or  c  is  not  infrequently  developed 
from  an  original  k. 

a.  Indian.      Skt.  kirdta  'name  of  a  degraded  tribe,'  Prak. 

cila{d)a   (Ijut   kirdya   'monkey').      Skt.    kunda   'turner/   Pali 

cunda.     Skt.  krsi  'agriculture,'  Pali  kasi,  Ur.  cdsa,  tdsa,  Bang. 

cds.     Skt.  gdsfJiika  'belonging  to  a  village,'  Sindhi  gofhcco. 

[Here  may  be  noted  the  Kasmlrl  change  of  k  to  c  in  the  forma- 
tion of  the  feminine,  e.  g.  Kasm.  hatuk  '  drake,'  hdtuc  '  duck. 'J 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  51 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Jcata  '  house,'  Phi.  JcafaJc,  New  Pers.  kad{ah), 
Zaf.  kl,  Kas.  Jckjah,  Von.  he,  Kuhr.  Myah,  Nat.  Z;ia/i,  Wax!  Jcat, 
Siyn.  c7(7,  Sarq.  c^y7,  Minj.  Jcai,  Yidg.  Jcyc.  Av.  Z;arate  'knife,' 
Phi.  Mrf,  New  Pers.  Jainl,  N.  Afy.  cara/^,  Bal.  Mrc{a),  N.  Bal. 
hliarca,  Kurd.  ^!r(cZ),  Oss.  Z;7«an?.  New  Pers.  Tiaih  '  flea,'  Kurd. 
Z;ec,  kac.  Av.  Z-a  '  who  ?  '  Sarq.  coi,  Tag.  Oss.  ct,  etc.  (see  §  116). 
Av.  sfika  'needle,'  Phi.  sncan,  Paz.  stlmn,  sozan,  New  Pers. 
sosan,  Gab.  so/aw,  Zaf.,  Kas..  sozo,  Wax!  sic,  Sarq.  sic,  Bal. 
sucin,  stem,  N.  Bal.  sism,  Maw,  s7sm,  st'sm,  Kurd,  suzin. 

k  >t. 
§  119.     The    change   of  /t  to   f  is  very  rare.     In  many  of  its 
occurrences  it  is  due  to  dissimilation. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  krsi  'agriculture,'  Ur.  tasa,  casa,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §).      Skt,   kakkula   'bdellium,'   Pali   takkola,   Simh. 

takul. 

k  >  p. 

§  120.     Tlie  change  of  k  to  p  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jalukikd  '  leech,'  Pali  jalnptikd,  jaliika  (due 
in  this  example  to  dissimilation). 

k  >  111. 
§  121.     The  change  of  k  to  hh  occurs  with  extreme  rarity. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  s'lkara  '  spray,'  Prak.  si{h)ara,  slbhara,  Pali 
sikara.     [See  now  Pischel,  §  206,] 

k  >  y. 

§  122.  The  change  of  Z;  to  y  is  only  apparent.  The  k  is  actu- 
ally lost  through  the  transition-grade  g,  and  y  is  then  inserted 
to  prevent  the  hiatus  caused  by  the  loss  of  the  k.  The  phe- 
nomenon is  far  less  frequent  in  the  Iranian  than  in  the  Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ndrikcla  '  cocoanut,'  Naip.  narival.  Bang. 
ndrel,  Bihari  ndriyar,  Hindi  ndriyal,  Panj.  narclu,  tmUru, 
Sindhi  ndrelu,   nd'iru,  Guj.  ndriyal,  Mar.  7idral.     Skt.  dkdra 

E  2 


52  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

'figure,'  Prak.  agdra,  Mahar.  ayara,  aJcara,  Pali  ahara.  Skt. 
Tiohila  'cuckoo,'  Prak.  hoila,  Ur.  Jcdyila,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindlii 
JmU,  Guj.  Jcdyal,  Mar.  hokll,  Siihh.  Jcovulla,  Anglo-Ind.  Jco'il. 
Skt.  {u)dalia  '  water,'  Jaina  Prak.  daga,  Pali  dalici,  oJca,  Siiiih. 
daga,  duya,  diya.  Skt.  caJcOra  '  sort  of  bird,'  Elu  siyuru,  Siiiih. 
siyuru,  sivrii. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  matikan  '  mare,'  New  Pers.  mddigan,  Bal. 
mddydn,  N.  Bal.  mdbin,  mdzin. 

7c  >  V. 

§  123.  The  change  of  Jc  to  v,  like  that  of  7c  to  ?/,  is  only  apparent. 
The  7v  is  actually  lost  through  the  transition -grade  g,  and  v  is  then 
inserted  to  prevent  the  hiatus  caused  by  the  loss  of  the  7c. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  suTca  'parrot,'  Pali  suTca,  suva.  Skt.  naTcida 
'  mongoose,'  Pali  naTcula,  Ur,,  Bang.  7iml,  Hindi  neval,  Panj. 
neul,  Sindhi  noru,  Guj.  noliyu.  Skt.  7cd7cila  '  cuckoo,'  Simh. 
7covulld,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  viTcdsate  '  appears,'  Phi.  gidcds  '  witness,' 
Paz.  guvdJi,  guvdi,  New  Pers.  guvd{Ji).  Skt.  vi7iardtl  'trans- 
poses,' Phi.  guTcanfcmo,  Paz.  guJidrdb,  New  Pers.  guvdrad.  Av. 
sp«w  'dog,'  Med.  o-TraKa,  Phi.  saTc,  sag,  New  Pers.  sag,  Gab. 
sa6a,  sava,  Kas.  ashd,  aspd,  Samn.  asha,  Tal.  sij^d,  Afy.  s^jai, 
Kurd.  safe. 

7c  >  s. 

§  124.     The  change  of  Z;  to  ^  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  siiTca  'needle,'  N.  Bal.  sisin,  sisan,  slsin, 
sesln,  etc.  (see  §  118). 

7c  >  7i. 

§  125.  The  change  of  7c  to  7i  is  rare  in  the  Indian  and 
especially  rare  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  s])}iati7ca  'crystal,'  Prak.  p7iali7ia, pJialiya, j)7ia- 
dia,  Pah X)7iali7ca.  Skt.  sri7cn  'beauty,'  Mahar.  Prak.  sirlhd.  Skt. 
niJcasa  'touchstone,'  Prak.  niliasa,  Jrdna  Prak.  niliasa,  nig7iasa, 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  53 

Pali   niliasa.     Skt.   srjanalicira   'creator/  Sindhl  sirjanahdru. 
Skt.  dkdsa  '  sky,'  Prak.  dyCisa,  Pali  dJcdsa,  Simh.  ahasa,  dsa. 

b.  Iranian.     Av,  span  '  dog,'  Med.  o-Trdxa,  Kurd,  sail,  etc.  (see 
§  123). 

h  >  s,  z. 

§  126.  Tlie  change  of  Z;  to  z,  z  occurs  with  extreme  rarity  in 
the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sulia  '  needle,'  Paz.  suzan,  sozan,  New  Pers. 
sozan,  Zaf.,  Kas.  sozo,  Kurd.  siJzin,  etc.  (see  §  118). 

ApTiaeresis  of  h. 

§  127.     The  loss  of  an  initial  Ti  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Pali  huddala  '  hoe,'  Ur.  hord,  Bang,  kddal, 
Sindhi  Jcurarl,  Guj.  Jcoddro,  Siriih.  udalu,  uddlla. 

Syncope  of  h 

§  128.  Tlie  loss  of  an  internal  h  is  not  infrequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  although  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  phenomenon  occurs 
more  often  in  the  Middle  than  in  the  New  period. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  avakdsa  '  opportunity,'  Prak.  odsa,  avaydsa, 
Pali  dkdsa,  avakdsa.  Skt.  nakula  'mongoose,'  Ur.,  Bang., 
Panj.  netd,  Sindlil  noru,  Guj.  ndliyu,  etc.  (see  §  123).  Skt. 
ndrikela  'cocoanut,'  Bang,  ndrel,  Panj.  narelu,  naleru,  Sindhi 
ndrelu,  nd'iru.  Mar.  ndral,  etc.  (see  §  122).  Skt.  kokila  '  cuckoo,' 
Prak.  koila,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi  koil,  etc.  (see  §  122).  Skt. 
carmakdra  'leather- worker,'  PaH  cam7nakdra,Vr.camdra,'Bsing. 
cdmdr,  Hindi,  Panj.  camdr,  Sindlil  camdru,  Guj.  camdr,  Mar. 
cdmhdr. 

Apocope  of  k. 

§  129.  The  loss  of  a  final  k  is  very  common  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  hqdaka  '  servant,'  Phi.  handak,  New 
Pers.  tandah.  Phi.  cdrak  '  means,'  Paz.  cdra.  New  Pers.  cdrah, 
Afy.  cdra,  cara.     Av.  span  '  dog,'  Med.  <j-naKa,  Gab.  sabd,  savd, 


54  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Kas,  aspa,  ashcl,  Sanin.  asha,  Tal.  sipta,  Afy.  sj)ai,  etc,  (see  §  123). 
Skt,  navaJca  '  lad,'  New  Pers.  tiavah,  Kurd,  lav,  lo,  lau{k).  Phi. 
xdnak  '  house,'  New  Pers.  xanah,  Kurd,  xctnl,  Mukri  xanu. 

JEpenthesis  of  Jc. 

§  130.     The  insertion  of  k  is  very  rare  (merely  grapliic  ?). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  miOaoxta  '  lie,'  Phi.  mifokxf,  Paz.  miduxt 


111  =  kk 

§  131.  Indo-Iranian  kh  remains  in  general  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  naklia  '  nail,'  Pralc,  Pali  nakha,  Gyp.  nay. 
Skt.  likhati  'writes,'  Pnlk.  lilia'i,  Pali  likhati,  Kasm.  lekh, 
Hindi  likhna,  Guj.  lakhavum,  Mar.  lihineih,  Sirhli.  liyanava. 
Skt.  kliara  '  donkey,'  Prak.,  Pali  khara.  Skt.  khadati  '  eats,' 
Prflk.  khai,  Pali  khadati,  Ur.  khaihd,  Bang,  khd'ite,  Hindi 
kJidnd,  Panj.  khdnci,  Sindhi  khdinu,  Guj.  khdvmh,  Mar.  khdnem, 
Simh.  kanavd. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  xara  '  donkey,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  xar,  Waxi 
xtir,  Siyn.  Jiar,  Sarq.  car,  5ar,  Sangl.  xar,  Minj.  rrara,  Yidg. 
xuruh,  Afy.  a^ar,  N.  Bal.  /J^ar,  xar,  Kurd.  k{i)ar,  Zaza  arar,  Oss. 
xarag.  Av.  waxa  'nail,'  Phi.  ndxdn,  New  Pers.  ndxim,  Afy. 
^irt/j,  Bal.  nakun,  ndJmn,  N.  Bal.  ndxun,  Kurd,  nainuk,  Oss. 
i^ia;.  Av.  acu;a  'ice,'  New  Pers.  yax,  WaxI  yix,  Siyn.  yax, 
Yidg.  2/w^,  Yayn.  Ix,  Dig.  Oss.  ^/a^',  Tag.  ix.  Skt.  mukha  '  face,' 
Afy.  waa;. 

ZJi  >  Z;. 

§  132.  In  the  Indian  dialects  the  deaspirization  of  an  original 
kh  is  very  rare,  but  in  the  later  Iranian  dialects  the  phenomenon 
is  somewhat  more  frequent. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  khalu  '  indeed,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Kapur 

di  Giri)  kii,  ht.  Prak.  khu,  Pali  kho,  khalu.     Skt.  khd  'spring,' 

Pali  kd,  kJtd,  Gyp.  chev. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  55 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  xara  '  donkey,'  Kurd.  k{i)ar,  etc.  (see  pro- 
ceding   §).      Av.    naxa    'nail,'   Bal.   nahim,    nahun,   etc.    (see 

preceding  §). 

kh  >  gh,  y. 

§  133.  The  change  of  Jch  to  gh,  y,  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
Indian  dialects,  but  in  the  Iranian  dialects  it  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rcJiha  'line,'  Prak.  reha,  Pali  rcMia,  Hindi, 
Panj.  rchh,  Siudhi  reghl,  Guj.  rvg,  rekh,  Mar.  rcgh.  Skt. 
srmkhala  'chain,'  Prak.  samkala,  samkhala,  sifUkJiald,  Prdi 
samkhala,  Kasm.  hdmhala,  Ur.  samkala,  samkara,  Bang,  sikal, 
sikal,  Panj.,  Sindhi  samghar,  Guj.  sdmkal,  Mar.  sd{m)kal. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  sdkhd  '  twig,'  Phi.  sdk,  New  Pers.  sax,  sdy. 

kh  >  c. 

§  134.     The  change  of  kh  to  c  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.    xdra   '  donkey,'   Sarq.    car,   sar,    etc.    (see 

§  131). 

kh  >  s. 

§  135.     This  change,  like  the  preceding  one,  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.   xara   'donkey,'   Sarq.   sar,   car,    etc.    (see 

§  131). 

kh  >  h 

§  136.  The  change  of  kh  to  h  is  found  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects,  although  it  occurs  less  frequently  in  the 
latter  group  of  languages. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sakhi  'friend,'  Prak.  sahi,  Pali  sakhi,  Sindhi 
sahl.  Skt.  mukha  'face,'  Prak.  muha,  Pali  mukha,  Biharl 
mn{m)h,  Hindi  mumh,  Panj.  miimhu,  muJtwh,  Sindhi  mumhtmi, 
mukhu,  Sirhh.  muva.  Gyp.  mtvy. 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  xara  'donkey,'  Siyn.  har,  etc.  (see  §  131). 
Av.  naxa  '  nail,'  Bal.  ndkun,  ndhun,  etc.  (see  §  131). 

kh  >  y. 

§  137.  The  change  of  kh  to  y,  like  that  of  k  to  y  (see  §  122),  is 
only  apparent. 


56  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.      Skt.  likhati  'writes/  Simh.   liyanava,  etc.  (see 

§131). 

kh  >  V. 

§  138.     Tlie  change  of  Jch  to  v,  which  is,  like  that  of  ^  to  ?;  (see 

§  123),  only  apparent,  occurs  very  rarely. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  mukha  '  face,'  Simh.  mwm,  etc.  (see  §  136). 

Prothesis  of  kh. 
§  139.     Prothetic  kh  is  found  quite  frequently  in  the  Iranian 
dialects  prefixed  to  words  which  originally  began  with  vowels. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  aSsma  '  wrath,'  Phi.  ccesm,  New  Pers.  xism. 
Av.  ard§a  '  bear,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  xirs,  Maz.  d§,  Siyn.  yurs,  Sarq. 
yiirx,  Yidg.  yars,  Afy.  ya^,  Kurd,  virc,  hire,  Mrs,  Zaza  xec,  Oss. 
ars.  Gk.  o)6v  'egg,'  Phi.  xayak,  New  Pers.  xayah.  Gab.  vuc, 
Afy.  Im,  Bal.  haik,,  Kurd.  ha]ik,  hi,  hck,  Oss.  aikh{a).  Skt.  ama 
'  raw,'  New  Pers.  xam,  Wax!  yilng,  Afy.  om,  um,  Bal.  hamag, 
N.  Bal.  Jiamay,  Kurd.  a:aw. 


§  140.  Indo-Iranian  <;  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects,  except  for  the  Iranian 
law  of  spirantization  wliich  develops  y  from  g,  unless  the  g  is 
either  initial  or  is  preceded  by  a  nasal  or  a  sibilant. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  gardahJia  '  donkey,'  Prak.  gaddaha,  gaddaha, 
Pali  gadrahha,  Ass.  gddh,  Naip.  gaddha,  Ur.  gadhd,  Bang,  gddhd, 
Biharl,  Hindi  gadhd,  Panj.  gadlm,  gaddo,  Sindhi  garahu,  Guj. 
gadhedo,  Mar.  gddhav.  Skt.  yugala  'pair,'  Apab.  Prak.  jtcalu, 
Pali  yugala,  Ur.  jugala.  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Guj.  jtigal,  Mar. 
juld,  Jul,  juval. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  garama  '  warm,'  Old  Pers.  garmapada,  Phi., 
New  Pers.  garm,  Siyn.  garm,  Sarq.  (jritrm,  ziXrm,  Afy.  ydrma, 
Bal.,  Kurd,  ^arm,  Dig.  Oss.  yarm.  Tag.  gar;w.  Av.  gdu  '  cow,' 
Phi.,  New  Pers.  go,  gav,  Zaf.,  Ka§.,  Von.  go,  Kuhr.  ^6i&,  WaxI 
yau,  yil,  Siyn.  ^at;,  Sarq.  ^ao,  SangL,  Minj.  yao,  Yayn.  gova, 
Afy.  yvd,  Bal.  gdk,  N.  Bal.  ^rtia;,  Kurd,  gd,  Dig.  Oss.  yo^,  Tag. 
qug.     Skt.  &/io//a  'joint,'  Bal.  hog,  N.  Bal.  &tiy. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  57 

9  >  7^' 
§  141.     Tlie  change  of  the  voiced  g  to  the  voiceless  k  is  not 
frequent  in  the  Indian  dialects.      In  the  Iranian  dialects  it  is 
still  more  rare,  excepting  in  the  Tagaurish  Ossetish,  which  has 
q  initially  for  Indo-Iranian  g  (Digaurish  y). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nagara  'city,'  Prak.  naara,  Mahar.  Prak. 
nayara,  Pais.  Prak.  naJcara,  New  Ind.  dialects  nair,  ner,  Siriih. 
nuvara,  niyari.  Skt.  maga  '  Magian,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of 
Kapur  di  Giri)  maka.  Skt.  chagala  'goat/  Pali  cJiakala. 
Skt.  ajagara  'boa-constrictor,'  Pah  ajaJcara,  ajagara.  Skt. 
garuda  '  mytliical  bird,'  Prak.  garuda,  ganda,  galuda,  Pali  ganda, 
Elu  gurulu,  Simh.  Jcundla.  Skt.  ga{m)hhtra  '  deep,'  Prak.  gaJiira, 
Pah  ga{m)hMra,  Ur.  gahira,  Hindi  gahird,  gaJiara,  Sindhi  gahiro, 
Simh.  gdmhuru,  humhuru. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gardma  'warm,'  Tag.  Oss.  qarm,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §).  Av.  gaosa  '  ear,'  Old  Pers.  gausa,  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
gos,  Sir.,  Bahb.  gus,  Nay.  gus,  WaxI  yils,  yis,  Siyn.  yuz,  Sarq. 
yatd,  Yidg.  yii,  Afy.  yvaiy,  Eal.  (/os,  Kurd,  guh,  Dig.  Oss.  y05, 
Tag.  qils. 

9  >  9k  y- 
§  142.  The  aspirization  of  Indo-Iranian  g  is  rare  and  only 
sporadic  in  the  Indian  dialects,  but  in  the  Iranian  dialects  g 
becomes  y  regularly,  excepting  initially  or  after  a  nasal  or  a  sibi- 
lant. In  the  Pamir  dialects,  in  Afyan,  and  in  Digaurish  Ossetish 
Indo-Iranian  g  becomes  y  also  initially. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  grha,  gelia  '  house,'  Prak.  gelm,  Apab.  Prak. 
gJiarii,  Pali  ghara,  gaJia,  geha,  Kasm.  gaJiar,  gar,  Old  Hindi 
gelta,  New  Ind.  dialects  ghar,  excepting  Mar.  geh,  Simh.  ge,  geya, 
Gyp.  Jcher,  Jcyel.  Skt.  godhuma  '  wheat,'  Apab.  Prak.  goJiumu, 
Pali  godhuma,  Ass.  gJiemhu,  Naip.  galulni,  Ur.  ga{ha)ma,  Bang. 
goni,  gam,  Biharl  golium,  Hindi  gd{m)hum,  gcJmni,  ghcum,  Panj. 
ghBuni,  Sindhi  gchum,  Guj.  ghamh,  Gyp.  giv, 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  yuga  'yoke,'  New  Pers.  juy,  Siyn.  ?/My, 
Sarq.  ijily,  Kurd,  juh     Av.  gaosa  '  ear,'  WaxI  yiis,  yis,  Siyn. 


58  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

yuz,  Sarq.  yaiil,  Yidg.  ytl,  My.  yvaiy,  Dig.  Oss.  yos,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §).  Av.  gala  'thief,'  Afy.  yal.  Av.  mdrdya  'bird/ 
Phi.  mury^  miirv,  New  Pers.  tniiry,  Msz.  »»ary,  Afy.  marya, 
Kurd,  mrisk,  Oss.  wzary.  Plil.,  Paz.,  New  Pers.  waw  'bread,' 
Saf.  mi,  Nay.  wat<,  Minj.  nayan,  Cent.  Dial,  wm)^,  Bal.  nagan, 
N.  Bal.  nayan. 

9>y- 

§  143.  The  change  oi  g  to  y  is  only  apparent.  The  ^  is  in 
reality  lost,  and  y  is  then  inserted  to  prevent  the  resulting  hiatus 
(cf.  §§  122,  137). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jagat  'world,'  Mahar.  Prak.  jaya,  Sindhi 
jagu,  jagatu.  Skt.  nagara  '  city,'  Maliar.  Prak.  nayara,  Simh. 
niyari,  nuvara,  etc.  (see  §  141).  Skt.  naga  '  snake,'  Prak.,  Pali 
naga,  Simh.  nayd,  na. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  miri-gaona  'having  a  golden  colour,'  Plil. 
mfingun,  New  Pers.  sargiln,  Afy.  zaryun. 

g  >v. 
§  144.  The  change  oi  g  to  v  in  the  Indian  dialects  is  only  an 
apparent  one,  the  v  being  really  inserted  to  prevent  the  hiatus 
arising  from  the  loss  of  the  original  g  (cf.  §§  123,  138).  In  the 
Iranian  dialects,  on  the  contrary,  the  change  of  ^  to  v  is  a  real  one. 
Tlie  phenomenon  does  not  occur  frequently. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nagara  'city,'  Simh.  nuvara,  niyari,  etc. 
(see  §  141). 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  magu  '  Magian, '  Phi.  inagil,  magupat, 
mavpat,  New  Pers.  muy,  moy,  mobad.  Av.  moroya  'bird,'  Plil. 
mury,  murv,  etc.  (see  §  142).  New  Pers.  xargus  '  hare  '  (lit. 
'donkey- eared,'  Av.  ^xara-gaosa),  Kurd,  karvas. 

g  >  z. 
§  145.     The  change  oi  g  to  z  is  excessively  rare,  although  it 
is   sometimes  fomid   initially   in    sporadic   words   m   Siynl    and 
Sariqoll. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  59 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gaii  'cow,'  Siyn.  mv,  Sarq.  ;zao,  etc.  (see 
§  140).     Av.  gardma  'warm,'  Sarq.  ziirm,  gitrm,  etc.  (see  §  140). 

g  >  h. 

§  146.     The  change  of  g  to  h  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  bhdgincya  'sister's  son,'  Pali  hlmg'mejja, 
Simh.  hdJicina,  hdna. 

Syncope  of  g. 

§  147.  Tlie  loss  of  an  internal  g  is  found  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  although  the  New  Indian  does  not 
suffer  syncope  of  g  as  frequently  as  do  the  Middle  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hlidgadheya  '  share, '  Prak.  hJtdadcha,  Mahar. 
Prak.  hhdya,  Pali  hlidga.  Skt.  srgdla  'jackal,'  Prak.  sidla,  Pali 
sigdla,  Ur.  sidla,  scdla,  Bang,  sidl,  Simh.  likald.  Skt.  dgata 
'arrived,'  Mag.  Prak.  dade.  Skt.  dvlguna  'two-fold,'  Prak. 
dmma,  Pali  diguna,  Hindi,  Panj.  dund,  Sindhl  diind,  Mar.  diin. 
Skt.  hhaginl  'sister,'  Prak.  hahim,  hJia'im,  Pali  bhagim,  Ur. 
hhdum,  hhatlm,  Bang,  ha'in,  Hindi  hahin,  Panj.  hhdin,  hdimJi, 
Sindhl  hJiemi,  Guj.  hehcn,  Mar.  hahm,  hhdin.  Skt.  yugala  'pair,' 
Apab.  Prak.  jitalu,  Mar.  jid_d,  jill,  jural,  etc.  (see  §  140). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  draoya  'lie,'  Old  Pers.  drauga,  Phi.  drag, 
droy,  New  Pers.  durdy,  Maz.  daril,  Tal.  dil,  Sarq.  diiru,  Afy. 
dardy,  Bal.  d{a)rug,  N.  Bal.  droy,  Kurd,  dardv,  darau.  Av.  ci 
'what?  '+gaona  'kind,'  Plil.  cigun{lh),  New  Pers.  cigilnah,  cun. 


gh  =  gh. 

§  148.     Indo-Iranian  gli  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  gliaia  'jar,'  Prak.  gliada,  Hindi  ghadd,  other 
New  Ind.  dialects  gliadi.  Gyp.  khoro. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  tnaeya  '  cloud, '  Phi.,  New  Pers.  mey,  Dig. 
Oss.  meya,  Tag.  mly. 


60  JNDO-IEjINIAN  niOXOLOGY 

(jll  >  Jc. 

§  149.     The  change  of  gli  to  k  occurs  very  rarely  as  a  final  in  the 
Iranian  dialects, 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  asdmaoya  'destrojdng  righteousness,'  Phi. 
ahramuJc.  Av.  cZaya  '  conflagration, '  Phi.  day,  New  Pers.  day, 
Bal.  dag,  N.  Bal.  day,  Kurd.  daJc. 

gli  >  Tell. 
§  150.     Tlie  change   of  gJi  to  kh  occurs   regularly  in  Paisaci 
Prakrit. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  megha  'cloud,'  Prak.  mcha,  Pais.  Prak. 
mckha,  Pali  megha,  Hindi  meniJi,  mmih,  Panj.  mimli,  nilhaih, 
Sindhi  mlnihu. 

gJi  >  g. 
§  151.     The  deaspirization  of  gh  is  very  rare  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  excepting  in  Kasmlri. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  glwtaka  'horse,'  Prak,  ghodaa,  Pali  gliotaka. 
New  Ind.  dialects  glwra,  but  Kasm.  guf;  Gyp.  garo.  Skt. 
vigliafate  'perishes,'  Pali  vighatcti,  Ur.,  Bang,  higada,  Hindi, 
Panj.  bigad,  Sindhi  hlgid,  Guj.  hagad,  Mar.  highad. 

b.  Iranian.     New  Pers.  yidyid  ^chatter,' Kurd,  gdlagdl,  galgal. 

gh  >  h. 

§  152.     The  change  of  gh  to  7ms  not  uncommon  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  but  in  the  Iranian  dialects  it  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ?«///<«' light, '  Prak,,  Pali  lahii,  Siihh.  lahu, 
luhu.  Skt.  araghatta  '  well- wheel, '  Hindi,  Panj.  {a)mhaf,  Sindhi 
ariajtu,  Guj.  rcmf.  Mar.  rahaf.  Skt.  oncgha  'cloud,'  Prak. 
m&ha,  Hindi  mcmh,  minih,  Panj.  minih,  mlham,  Sindhi  immhu, 
etc.  (see  §  150). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  *haya-stdna  'abode  of  God,'  Old  Pers. 
TO  Bayia-Tavov  opo<s,  Paz.  hay,  New  Pers.  hahistun,  hahistdn, 
hlstiln. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  Gl 

Syncope  of  gJi. 
§  153.     Tlie  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  gh  internally  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  ray  a  nom.  prop.,  Old  Pers.  raga,  Phi.  raJc, 
mi.  New  Pers.  rai. 


19,  n 

§  154.  Of  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects  the  SindliT, 
Assamese,  and  Naipali  alone  have  retained  td,  n,  pronounced  tag 
and  ni.  In  the  rest  of  the  New  Indian  and  in  all  the  Iranian 
dialects  19  and  n  have  been  lost.  The  Sindhi  19  and  n  are  of 
secondary  development  in  the  majority  of  their  occurrences. 


c  =  c. 

§  155.  Indo-Iranian  c  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects,  although  in  the  latter 
group  internal  Indo-Iranian  c  is  rare,  excepting  in  Pahlavl  and 
BalucT. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cafvdri  'four,'  Prak.  caftdri,  caiiro,  Pali  cafu, 
Ur.,  Bang,  cdri,  Kasm.  cor,  Hindi,  Panj.  car,  Sindhi  cdri,  Guj., 
Mar.  car.  Skt.  nice  'beneath,'  Ur.,  Bang,  nica,  Hindi  nlcil, 
Panj.  mcom,  Sindhi,  Guj.  nice,  Mar.  nic. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  casman  'eye,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  casm.  Gab. 
cam,  Siv.,  Zaf.  cas,  Kas.,  Von.  cam,  Kuhr.  cas,  Samn.,  Maz.  cas, 
Gil.  cis,  WaxI  cohn,  Siyn.  ccm,  Sarq.  cam,  Sangl.  sani,  Minj. 
cam,  Yidg.  cum,  Bal.  cam,  N.  Bal.  cJiam,  Kurd,  cdv,  Zaza  cim, 
Dig.  Oss.  casta.  Tag.  casth.  Av.  caxra  '  wheel, '  Plil.  caxr.  New 
Pers.  carx,  caJir,  Kas.  cord,  cir.  Dig.  Oss.  calx.  Av.  ciOra 
*  appearance,'  Old  Pers.  ciO^'a,  Phi.  citre,  cilir{aJc),  New  Pers. 
cilir{ali),  Afy.  cira,  slra,  Kurd.  cdra. 

c  >  c. 
§  156.     The  change  of  the  palatal  c  to  the  afErieative  c  is  very 
rare  in  the  Indian  dialects,  excepting  in  Kasmlrl,  Kafirl,  and  East 
Bangall.     In   early   tadbhavas,   desajas,   and  before  non-palatal 


62  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

vowels  the  MarfitliT  pronounces  c  as  c,  and  j  as  J,  but  before  the 
palatal  vowels  I,  c,  in  tatsamas  and  late  tadbhavas  the  old  sounds 
of  c  and  j  are  retained.  Tlie  Iranian  dialects  show  few  instances 
of  a  change  of  c  to  c,  excepting  in  the  Persian  dialects  and  in 
Afyan. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  catvari  '  four, '  Kasm.  cijr,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §).     Kaf.  mac  'man,'  Sindhi  mdcu. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  cadwdro  'four,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  caJiar, 
WaxI  cahur,  cahiir,  Siyn.  cavor,  cavar,  Sarq.  cavur,  cavor,  Sangl. 
safor,  Minj.  caftr,  Yidg.  ctr,  Afy.  calor,  Bal.  car,  N.  Bal.  cydr, 
Kurd.  (Sihna)  cavdr,  Dig.  Oss.  cuphpharj  Tag.  cij)li])liar.  Av. 
casman  '  eye, '  Siyn.  cem,  Sarq.  cam,  Dig.  Oss.  casta,  Tag.  casth, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §),  Av.  pacaiti  'cooks,'  Phi.  Jiazct,  New 
Pers.  pazad,  Gab.  ]}axa,  Kas.  imtan,  Maz.  imxta,  Waxi  xmcam, 
Aly.  paxavul,  Bal.  pacag,  N.  Bal.  phasay,  Kurd,  ^a^iw,  Bazazid 
pdthin,  Dig.  Oss.  _^em,  Tag.  ^cm. 

c  >  c/i. 

§  157.     The  change  of  c  to  cA  is  found  initially  in  North  Balucl. 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  casman  '  eye, '  N.  Bal.  cJiam,  etc.  (see  §  155). 

c  >j. 

§  158.  The  change  of  the  tenuis  c  to  the  media  ^'  is  excessively 
rare  in  the  Indian  dialects.  It  is,  on  the  other  hand,  common 
between  vowels  in  the  Persian  dialects,  where  the  New  Persian 
shows  J3  (see  §  167). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  acald  'earth,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Dhauli) 
ajala,  Mahar.  Prak.  ayala.  Skt.  snic 'ladle,' Pali  suja.  Skt. 
maca  '  glass,'  Mar.  (vulg.)  maj. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  frasaocaydhi  'burnest,'  Phi.  sdccm,  Paz. 
sozet.  New  Pers.  sozam.  Gab.  sajan,  Maz.,  Gil.  Vsilj,  Sarq. 
sauz,  Afy.  sfjal,  svajavul,  sczal,  Bal.  sucag,  N.  Bal.  susay.  Dig. 
0b8.  sojun,  Tag.  sujin.  Av.  Imca  +  ahairi '■  irom  beneath, '  Phi. 
azcr,  Paz.  azer,  New  Pers.  ziir,  Sir.  si,  Zaf.  zcr,  other  Central 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  63 

dialects  jir,  Samn.  jer,  Tal.  jiar,  Jiidaeo-Pers.  £:er,  Kurd,  ^Ir, 
Tag.  Oss.  dala.  Av.  vaocat  'spoke,'  Plil.  vdc{ah)  'voice,'  New 
Pers.  vai,  &«;',  Gab.  vivaji,  Zaf.  rai,  Kas.  voj,  Von.  Z^oji^,  Kuhr. 
havojl,  Nay.  wmj. 

§  159.  Tlie  change  of  c  to  j  is  excessively  rare.  Cases  of  it  are 
found  in  Afyan  and  Ossetish. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  frasaocai/aJii  'biirnest,'  Afy.  sPjal,  svaj- 
avul,  scmJ,  Dig.  Oss.  sojim,  Tag.  siljin,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 
Av.  raocah  '  day, '  Old  Pers.  raucah,  Phi.  rOc{ih),  New  Pers.  roz, 
Gab.  ruj,  Siv.  rdsci,  Caspian  dialects  rU,  but  Tal.  rO^,  ruz,  Afy. 
n*«;,  Bal.  roc,  N.  Bal.  ra^,  Kurd,  ruz,  ro{z). 

c  >  ill. 

§  160.  The  change  of  c  to  tli,  like  all  other  changes  in  wliich 
the  cerebrals  are  concerned,  is  confined  to  the  Indian  dialects.  It 
is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  cahcii  'beak,'  Ur.  tliant,  thotht,  Bang,  thomf, 

comt,  Hindi  tliOmth,  come,  Guj.  came,  Mar.  come. 

c  >  f. 

§  161.     Tlie  change  of  c  to  ^  occiu-s  very  rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cihitsa  'cure,'  Jaina  Prak.  tegiccJia,  Pali 
tiJciccha. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pacalti  '  cooks, '  Ka§.  patan,  Kurd,  pdtin, 
etc.  (see  §  156).  Old  Pers.  cisciy  'anything,'  New  Pers.  elz, 
Kurd.  tist. 

c  >  ill,  6. 

§  162.     The  change  of  c  to  tJi,  6,  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cahcu  'beak,'  Ur.  tliant,  thomi,  etc.  (see 
§160). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ^^^aca^^i 'cooks,' Bayazid  Kuid.  pdtJun,  etc. 
(see  §  156). 


6i  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

C>  d. 

§  163.  The  change  of  c  to  d  occurs  with  extreme  rarity  except- 
ing in  Simhjilese. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dcarija  '  teacher, '  Mahar.  Prak.  aijariya,  Pali 
dcariya,  Siriih.  ddura,  Maladive  eduru.  Skt.  mucanti  'they 
release,'  Prak.  mucat,  Mahar.  Prak.  muyai,  Pali  muhcati,  Simh. 
imtdanavd. 

c>y. 

§  164.  The  change  oi  c  to  y  is  only  an  apparent  one,  y  being 
inserted  to  prevent  the  hiatus  arising  from  the  syncope  of  c  (cf. 
§§  122,  137,  143). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  dccirya  '  teacher, '  Mahar.  Prak,  dyariya,  etc. 

(see  preceding  §).     Skt.  mucanti  Hhey  release,'  Mahar.  Prak. 

muyaz,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

c  >  s. 

§  165.  In  Assamese  and  West  Hindi  c  is  always  pronounced  s. 
Tlie  Siihhalese  often  changes  c  to  s,  which  may  further  develop 
into  h.  Of  the  Iranian  dialects  the  Afyan  shows  the  development 
of  s  from  c  most  frequently. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cakra  'wheel,'  Prak.,  Pali  caMa,  Ass.  cdk 
(pron.  sdJc),  Ur.  caJc,  E.  Hindi  cdh,  W.  Hindi  cakJci  (pron.  saJckl), 
Panj.  cakk,  Sindhi  caku,  Gruj.,  Mar.  cdk,  Simh.  sak,  hak.  Skt. 
pacati  'cooks,'  Pali  i)acati,  New  Ind.  dialects  Vpac,  Simh. 
'pdsavanavd. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  cidra  'appearance,'  Afy.  slra,  cira  (see 
§  155). 

c  >  s. 

§  166.  The  change  of  c  to  s  occurs  very  rarely  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  haca  'from,'  Old  Pers,  hacd,  Phi.  aj.  New 
Pers.  az,  z{i),  WaxI,  Sarq.  z,  My.  j,  Bal.  ac,  as,  Kurd,  az,  z{a). 
Phi.  ndcuk  'tender,'  New  Pers.  ndzuk,  Kulir.  nasfar.  Phi. 
{h)cc  '  ever,'  Paz.  hec{t),  New  Pers.  {h)ec,  hes,  KaS.  ec.     Av.  raocah 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  65 

'  day,'  Siv.  rosa,  N.  Bal.  ros,  etc.  (see  §  159).  Phi.  cop  '  wood,' 
New  Pers.  coh,  Sir.  ciTy,  Wax!  soX^^,  Sarq.  xaih,  Kurd,  co, 
Amarlu  sw. 

c  >  z. 
§  167.     The  change  of  c  to  ^  is  made  regularly  in  New  Persian 
between  vowels,  after  r,  and  finally. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tacaiti  '  runs,'  Phi.  tacetj  tcizet,  New  Pers. 
tdmd,  WaxI  tocani,  Sarq.  tajam,  Afy.  tasal,  Bal.  tacag,  N.  Bal. 
tJiasay,  Dig.  Oss.  tJiajin.  Av,  raucah  '  day,'  New  Pers.  ro^,  etc. 
(see  §  159).  Av.  sacaiti  'follows,'  Phi.  saxtano,  New  Pers. 
sdsad,  Kas.  hasoj,  Judaeo-Pers.  scisad. 

c  >  z. 
§  168.     The  change  of  c  to  i,  which  is  closely  akin  to  that  dis- 
cussed in  the  preceding  paragraph,  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  huciOra  '  beautiful,'  Phi.  huciJir,  New  Pers. 
Jmjlr,  XKJlr,  Imzir.  Av.  raucah  '  day,'  Tal.  roz^  riiz,  Kurd,  ruz, 
roz,  ro,  etc.  (see  §  159).  Old  Pers.  KaniOr]  '  measure  for  wheat/ 
Phi.  Jcapic,  New  Pers.  haziz,  Tcaviz. 

c  >  Jh 
§  169.     The  change  of  c  to  h  is  made,  as  already  noted  in  §  165, 
through  the  transition-grade  s.     It  is  not  of  common  occurrence. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  caJcm  'wheel,'  Simh.  haJc,  sak,  etc.  (see 
§  165).  Skt.  cora  '  thief,'  Prak.,  Pali  cura,  New  Ind.  dialects 
and  Gyp.  cor,  Simh.  Jiora,  hera. 

c  >  cK 
§  170.     The  change  of  c  to  ci  is  found  occasionally  in  the  North 
Balucl. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  caOwdro  ^  four,'  N.  Bal.  cycir,  etc.  (see 
§  156). 

Syncope  of  c. 
§  171.    The  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  c  occurs  not  infrequently  in  the 

r 


66  INDO-IRANIAN  niONOLOGY 

Indo-Iranian  dialects.  It  is  more  common  in  the  Middle  tlian 
in  the  New  Indian  period.  In  the  Iranian  dialects,  where  the 
syncope  is  found  least  often,  c  is  lost  only  in  the  vicinity  of 
long  vowels. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vaeana  'voice,'  Prak.  vaana,  vacana,  Pali 
vacana,  Sindhi  vacanii.  Skt.  sucl  '  needle,'  Prak.  sifi,  Pali  sucl^ 
Ur.,  Bang,  sucl,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindlil  suij  Guj.  soy,  Mar.  sui, 
Gyp.  SUV. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  raocali  '  day,'  Caspian  dialects  ru,  Kurd,  ro, 
roz,  ruz,  etc.  (see  §  159). 


cli  =.  cli. 

§  172.     It  is  only  in  the  Indian  dialects  that  ch  occurs.     Here, 
however,  it  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Vchap  '  go '  (?),  Ur.  tipihci,  Bang,  chapite, 
cdpite  '  to  conceal,'  tcpitc,  Hindi  cJidpand,  cdmpand  '  to  print,  to 
squeeze,'  topana,  fopand,  thapand,  tlpand  'to  bury,'  Sindhi 
clwpanu,  cdpanu  '  to  shampoo,'  fapudann,  tliapanu,  Mar.  chdpcu- 
neni,  cdpatanBm,  tdp,  tliapahd,  Anglo-Indian  {firsf)chop,  shampoo. 

ch  >  c. 

§  173.     The  deaspirization  of  ch  is  a  very  rare  phenomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  \/chap  'go'  (?),  Bang,  cdpiti',  cluipite,  Hindi 
cdmpand,  cMpand,  Sindhi  cdpanu,  clmpanu,  Mar.  cdpatanem, 
chdpancm,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

ch  >  t. 

§  174.     The  change  of  ch  to  t  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Vclmp  '  go '  (?),  Ur.  tipibd,  Bang,  tepite, 
Hindi  tlpatid,  thapand,  topand,  topand,  Sindhi  tapudanu,  tha- 
panu.  Mar.  tdp,  thapami,  etc.  (see  §  172). 

ch  >  th. 

§  176.     The  change  of  ch  to  th  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  Vchap  '  go '  (?),  Hindi  thapand,  tlpand,  to- 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  67 

pana,  topand,  Sindhi  thapanu,  tapudanu,  Mar.  thapaJid,  tap,  etc. 
(see  §  172). 

ch  >  t. 

§  176.     The  change  of  ch  to  t  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt,    Vcliap  'go,'  Hindi  tdpanci,  topand,  tlpand, 
thapand,  etc.  (see  §  172). 

ch  >  s. 

§  177.  Many  New  Indian  dialects,  especially  Assamese,  Ban- 
gali,  and  Marathi,  as  well  as  the  others  in  sporadic  instances, 
pronounce  or  write  5  instead  of  ch. 

a.  Indian,     Skt.  prchati  '  asks,'  Prak,  puccJia'i,  Pali  pucchati, 

Ur.  piichand,  pacdra,  Bang,  puchite,  Hindi  puchand,  Panj.  pticch, 

Sindhi  puchanu,  Guj.  puchavum,  May.  pusanem. 

With  this  change  of  ch  to  s  may  perhaps  be  compared  the  cases 
where  Iranian  s  =  Indian  ch,  e.g. 

Skt.  chdyd  '  shadow,'  Prak.  chflyd,  chad  '■  beauty,'  Pali  chdyd 

'shadow,'    Ur.    chdhina,    Hindi   chdm{v),   chdihh,   chdum,  Panj. 

cd{u)m,  Sindhi  chdm{v),  Guj.  cdmy :  Av.  asaya.  Phi.  sdyalc,  New 

Pers.  sdyah,  Bal.  sdig,  N.  Bal.  sdi,  Kurd.  st. 


J  =  J- 
§  178.     Indo-Iranian  j  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jaiogha  '  leg,'  Prak.,  Pali  janigha,  Naip.  jdiQ, 
Bang,  jdmgi,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  jdmgh,  Fanj.  jamgh,  Sindhi  jajogh, 
Janigh,  Guj.,  Mar.  jamghd,  jdmgh,  Gyp.  cang.  Skt.  hhrdtrjdyd 
*  brother's  wife,'  Ur.,  Bang,  hhdiija,  Hindi  Widij,  hhdvaj,  IhdiAJl, 
hhojdi,  Sindhi  Ihojdt,  Mar.  Ihdvajdt.  Skt.  hhrdtrja  '  nephew,' 
Hindi,  Panj.,  Guj.  hhatljd. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  jaini  *  woman,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  mn,  Gab. 
jan,  yan{uJc),  Siv.  zin,  Zaf.  iaw,  Kas.,  Kulir.  jan,  jin,  yan,  kin, 
Nay.  yanah,  Samn.  zanilco,  Siyn.  yin,  Sarq.  yin,  Hn,  Minj. 
zinga,  Afy.  ^iwrn,  jiwm,  ja^,  Bal.  jan,  Kurd,  iiw,  Zaza  jan. 
Av.  jam^i  'kills,'  Old  Pers.  ajanam,  Phi.  ^awc^#,  New  Pers. 

F  a 


68  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

sanad,  Zaf.  hazint,  Kas.  jidan,  Kuhr.  jindamiin,  Siyn.  zltmm, 
Sarq.  zanam,  Afy.  zanam,  Bal.  janag,  Kurd,  zanin.  Old  Pers. 
haji  '  tribute,'  New  Pers.  haj^  hdz,  bciz.  Phi.  barejan  '  oven/ 
New  Pers.  barejan,  Bal.  brijag,  brejag. 

J  >  'A  y- 
^  179.     Tlie  change  of  J  to  gli,  y,  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  jaini  '  woman/  Siyn.  yin^  Sarq.  yiw,  zin, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

j  >  c. 
§  180.     Tlie  change  of  the  media  j  to  the  tenuis  c  is  regular  in 
PaisacI  Prakrit  according  to  the  well-known  iiile  of  tliis  dialect 
that  all  mediae  or  mediae  aspiratae  become  tenues  or  tenues  aspira- 
tae.     Elsewhere  the  change  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rdjan  '  king/  Prak.  rdci,  Mahar.  Prak.  rdyd, 
Pais.  Prak.  rdcd,  Pali  rojd,  New  Ind.  dialects  rail,  rdv,  except 
Simh.  rada,  Maladive  radimg,  Gyp.  rag.  Skt.  vrajati  '■  wanders/ 
Prak.  vacca'i,  Pali  vajati.  Skt.  hambdja  '  Cambodia/  Prak. 
(inscriptions  of  Dhauli)  kaniboca. 

j  >  j^'- 
§  181.     The  aspirization  of  an  original  j  is  a  phenomenon  of 
rare  occurrence, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  YsiYx  jawjala  'wild,' Old  Hindi  j«?jfyar.  New 
Ind.  dialects  jatiujali,  except  Ass.  jamjJial,  Sindhi  jhamgali. 
Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  jana  '  person,'  Bang.  (Malda)  jhan,  Gyp.  jeno. 

j  >  d. 
§  182.     Tlie  change  of  j  to  d  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Middle 
Indian  dialects,  and  it  is  the  regular  change  to  which  an  original 
j  is  subject  in  Siihhalese. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  j//wa  'tongue,'  PrUk.  jihd,  jlbbhd,  Palijivhd, 
Ass.  jibd,  Naip.  jibro,  Kasm.  zed,  New  Ind.  dialects  jlbh  (Sindhi 
jibli),   Simh.    diva,    Maladive   da.    Gyp.    cib.      Skt.    jugupsati 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  69 

'  despises,'  Prak.  du{g)ucchai,  du{g)nmcliai,  jhuna'i,  juuccJiai,  Pali 
jif/uccJiati.  Skt.  tPjas  'glory,'  Prak.  teu,  Mahar.  Prak.  tei/a, 
Pclli  tcja,  Siiiih.  teda. 

j  >y- 

§  183.  The  change  of  j  to  y  is  in  the  Indian  dialects  only  an 
apparent  one,  y  being  really  inserted  to  prevent  the  liiatus  arising 
from  the  loss  of  an  intervocalic  j  (cf.  §§  122,  137,  143,  164).  In 
the  Iranian  dialects  an  actual  change  of  j  to  y  is  found,  but  it  is 
very  uncommon, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rdjan  '  king,'  Mahar.  Prak.  rayd,  etc.  (see 
§  180).  Skt.  samaja  '  herd,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Kapur  di 
Giri)  samaya.  Skt.  gaja  '  elephant,'  Prak.  gaya,  gaa,  Pali 
gaja. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  jaini  'woman,'  Gab.  yan{uk),  jan,  Kas., 
Kuhr.  yan,  jan,  jin,  zan,  Nay.  yanali,  etc.  (see  §  178). 

j  >  V. 

§  184.  Tlie  change  of  j  to  v,  like  that  of  j  to  y  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  is  only  apparent,  v  being  actually  inserted  to  prevent  the 
hiatus  arising  from  the  loss  of  an  intervocalic  j  (cf.  §§  123,  138, 
144).     The  phenomenon  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  rdjdnah  'of  a  king,'  Prak.  rddno,  Sak.  Prak. 

lavano  (cf.  also  §  180).     [See  now  Pischel,  §§  399-400.] 

j  >  z, 

§  185.  In  the  Iranian  dialects  the  change  of  j  to  z  is  very  fre- 
quent. In  the  Indian  dialects,  however,  it  is  only  in  the  North 
East,  particularly  in  Assamese,  Kasmirl,  vulgar  Bangall  (Eajbamsl 
and  Eastern),  and  Bihari,  that  j  is  pronounced  z. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jihvd  '  tongue,'  Kasm.  zeo,  etc.  (see  §  182). 
Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  jala  '  water,'  Ass.,  Kasm.,  vulgar  Bang.,  Bihari 
jaX  (pron.  za\  Sindhi  jaru. 

b.  Iranian,  Av,  jvaifl  '  lives,'  Old  Pers.  jJvdhy,  Phi.  zlvas- 
tano,   New   Pers.   zJstan,  Kas.  vazandO,  jiga,  Afy.  zvand[un), 


70  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Kurd,  zin,  ^iin.  Av.  jaini  '  woman,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  zan,  etc, 
(see  §  178).  Kurd,  vejdr  '  tliis  time,'  Bohtani  vesdr.  Av.  jafra 
'  deep,'  Phi.  ^i(far,  ^afr,  New  Pers.  zarf,  Judaeo-Pers.  zdrf,  Afy. 
eavar,  'Bal.juM,  N.  Bal.jaM,  Kurd,  ior,  Zazajor. 

j  >  z. 

§  186.  The  change  of  ^'  to  i,  which  is  closely  akin  to  the  one 
discussed  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  is  very  common  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ^aini  'woman,'  Siv.  iiw,  Zaf.  ia«,  Kas., 
Kuhr.  iaw,  jan^  jin,  yan,  Samn.  zanikO,  Sarq.  zin,  yln,  Minj. 
zinga,  Kurd,  iiw,  etc.  (see  §  178).  Av.  Jvai^i  'lives,'  Afy. 
zvand{un),  Kurd,  ziin,  zin,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Av.  jafra 
'  deep,'  New  Pers.  zarf,  Afy.  zavar,  Kurd,  ior,  etc.  (see  preced- 
ing §).  Av.  drdjah  '  length,'  Phi.,  Bal.  drdj,  N.  Bal.  (?mi, 
Kurd,  dirlz. 

Syncope  of  j. 

§  187.  Tlie  loss  of  an  original  intervocaHc  j  is  found  occasion- 
ally in  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rdjan  'king,'  Prak.  rdd,  New  Ind.  dialects 
rail,  rdv,  etc.  (see  §  180).  Skt.  vyajana  'fan,'  Prak.  viana, 
Hindi  hcnd.     Skt.,  Pali  ajagara  '  boa-constrictor,'  Mar.  «n 


jh  =  jh. 

§  188.  Original  jh  is  excessively  rare  in  the  Indian  dialects, 
and  it  is  lacking  altogether  in  the  Iranian  languages.  In  the 
majority  of  instances  in  the  Indian  dialects  original  jh  is  pre- 
served unchanged. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  jliampa  '  leap,'  Mar.  jhemp. 

J1^  >J' 
§  189.     The  deaspirization  otjh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.      Skt.  jhalla   'name  of  a  degraded  caste,'  Jaina 
Prak.  jalla. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  71 

jh  >  z. 
§  190.     In  Assamese  an  original  jli  is  written  ^',  which  is  pro- 
nounced z  (cf.  §  185).     Similarly  the  resultant  ^h  of  the  Kasmii-i 
is  pronounced  z. 

a.  Indian.  Ass.  ^dl  '  pungency '  (pron.  za\  Bang,  jhaluyd, 
Hindi  jhdl. 

t  =  t. 
§  191.     All  cases  in  which  cerebral  letters  are  concerned  are 
confined  to  the  Indian  dialects.     Indian  t  is  preserved  unchanged 
in  the  great  majority  of  instances. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  trutati  '  comes  apart/  Prak.  tuitat,  todai,  Ur. 
todand,  Bang,  toddtte,  Sindhi  todatm,  Guj.  tutavum,  todavum, 
Mar.  tutanem,  todanem.  Skt.  kapdta  '  door,'  Prak.  ka2)dta,  Ur., 
Bang.  Tiobdia,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Mar.  kavdd.  Skt.  V'c{h)tit  '■  to  cut 
off,'  New  Ind.  dialects  ^/chut,  but  also  Hindi  cMr,  Mar.  sut,  sod. 

t  >  d. 
§  192.  The  change  of  the  tenuis  t  to  the  media  d  is  the  most 
frequent  one  to  which  Indian  t  is  subject  In  the  East  New 
Indian  dialects  d  often  interchanges  with  r  and  this  r  itself  may 
further  develop  into  r.  No  distinction  is  here  made  between 
d  and  r. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  atavl  '  forest,'  Apab.  Prak.  adai,  Pali  atam. 
Skt.  hhata  'soldier,'  Prak.  bhada,  Apab.  Wiadu,  Pali  hhaia. 
Skt.  gliata  'jar,'  Prak.  gJiada,  Pali  ghata,  Hindi  ghadd,  other 
New  Ind.  dialects  ghadi.  Skt.  hlta  '  worm,'  Prak.  Mda,  Pali 
TiUa,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi  Mdd,  Sindhi  hidoy  Guj.  hido,  Mar.  kid^ 
kidd,  Gyp.  kirl.  Skt.,  Pali  katdJia  'pan,'  Ur.  karm,  kahrdt, 
kadhei,  Bang.  kad{di),  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi  kaddhl,  Guj.  kadhd, 
kadJial,  Siihli.  kuldva. 

t  >  dJi. 

§  193.     The  rare  change  of  t  to  dh  seems  to  occur  more  often 
in  the  Middle  than  in  the  New  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  safd  '  mane,'  Prak.  sddhd.     Skt.  sakatikd 


72  INDO-IIiANIAN  niONOLOGY 

'cart,'  Pnik.  saf/adhrl,  Haur.  Prak.  saadin,  Pali  sakata.  Ski 
liditahha  *namo  of  a  demon,'  Prak.  hedhava.  Skt.  aksapata 
*  arena,'  E.  Hindi  akhdrh,  Hindi  akhdra,  Mar.  ahhddd. 

t  >t. 

§  194.    Tlie  decerebralization  of  Indian  /  to  ^  occurs  very  rarely. 
a.    Indian.      Skt.    kufumhaJca    'house-holder,'    Pais.    Prak. 
kufmnbaka,  kutumhaka,  Pali  kutumhaka,  kutimhaka. 

t  >p. 

§  195.     The  change  of  ^  to  2?  is  excessively  rare, 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  karoti  '  pot,'  Pali  kalopi. 

t  >  r. 

§  198.     The  change  of  ^  to  r  (cf.  §  192)  is  not  frequent. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  katdha  '  pan,'  Ur.  karai,  kahrdt,  kadJiei,  etc. 
(see  §  192).  Skt.  ceta  '  servant,'  Panj.  cerd,  ccld,  etc.  (see 
following  §). 

f  >  I. 

§  197.  The  change  of  ^  to  Z  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  spliatika  '  crystal,'  Prak.  pJtalika,  plmdilm, 
phadia,  Pali  phalika.  Skt.  karkataka  'crab,'  Jaina  Prak.  kak- 
kada,  Pali  kakkataka,  Siiiih.  kakiduvd,  kakuhivd,  Skt.  katdha 
^  pan,'  Simh.  kuldva,  etc.  (see  §  192).  Skt.  ccta  '  servant,'  Prak. 
ceda,  Pali  cetaka,  Ur.,  Bang,  a'ld,  Hindi  celd,  cedd,  Panj.  celd, 
card,  Sindhi,  Guj.  cclo,  Mar.  ccld. 

t  >  I 

§  198.  Tlie  change  of  t  to  I  occurs  especially  in  Simhalese, 
■where  I  and  /  are  used  indiscriminately,  although  the  Maladive 
distinguishes  sharply  between  I  and  /. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  kuta  'peak,'  Prak.  kuda,  Pali  kufa,  Simh. 

kulu.     Skt.  sphotati  '  bursts  forth,'  Prak.  phutfa'i,  phtidat,  Pali 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  73 

phutati,  Hindi  phut,  Panj.  phutt,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  phuf, 
except  Simh.  polanava. 


th  =  fh. 
§  199.    The  retention  of  th  without  change  is  very  rare  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  matha  '  college,'  Prak.  madha,  Mar.  (dimin.) 
niadhi,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  math. 

th  >  t 
§  200.     The    deaspirization    of  th  is  very  rare   in  the   Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  htthan  '  axe,'  Prak.  hidhdra,  Pali  Jcuthart, 
Ur.  Jcutdrl,  kuhrari,  Jcufadt,  Bang,  hurhul,  Jcurhadi,  Bihari, 
Hindi  ktdharl,  Jcuhddd,  Panj.  Jcuhddd,  Jcumlhdrd,  kulhddd,  Sindhi, 
Guj.  Jctihdro,  Mar.  hurhdi,  Jcurhdr. 

th  >  d. 
§  201.     The  change   of  th  to  d  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pitha  'pedestal,'  Prak.  pidha,  pedha,  Pali 
pltha,  Bang,  pimdd,  Hindi,  Panj.  pJdM,  Sindhi  pedahi,  Guj. 
X)edhi,  Mar.  pat.  Skt.  paijiana  'reading,'  Ur.  padhihd,  Bang. 
piadhite,  Hindi,  Panj.  padhand,  Sindhi  padahanu,  Guj.  pad- 
havutk,  Mar.  padhanem. 

th  >  dh. 
§  202.     The  change  of  th  to  dh  is  the  most  common  one  of  aU 

those  to  which  Indian  th  is  subject.     It  is  especially  characteristic 

of  the  Western  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pitha  '  pedestal,'  Prak.  pidha,  pedha,  Hindi, 
Panj.  pldhd,  Guj.  pedhi,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  Jmthdri 
'axe,'  Prak.  Jcudhnra,  Bang,  hurhid,  Jcurhfldi,  etc.  (see  §  200). 
Skt.  pathati  '  reads,'  Prak.  padhai,  Pali  pathati,  Ass.  V parh, 
Bang,  par,  New  Ind.  dialects  padh,  parh,  E.  New  Ind.  dialects 
also  parh. 


74  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

th  >  rh,  rli. 
§  203.     The  change  of  th  to  rh,  rh,  is  especially  characteristic  of 
the  Eastern  dialects,  wliile  the  Western  dialects,  as  noted  in  the 
preceding  paragrapli,  tend  to  the  change  of  th  to  dh. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kuthari  'axe,'  Bang.  JcurMd,  JcurJuidi,  etc. 
(see  §  200).  Skt.  imthati  '  reads,'  New  Ind.  dialects  parh,  padh, 
E.  New  Ind.  dialects  also  j;«rA,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

th  >  II 
§  204.     The  change  of  th  to  II  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  atdkotha,  ai9kol{l)a  '  name  of  a  tree,'  Prak. 
amholla,  Pali  amJcola,  Guj.,  Mar.  amkol. 

th  >  Ih. 
§  205.     The  change  of  th  to  Ih  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kuthari  'axe,'  Bihari,  Hindi  kulhdrJ,  kuhada, 
Panj.  kidhadd,  kumlhdrd,  kuliddd,  etc.  (see  §  200).  Skt.  kuthara 
'  sugar-mill,'  Mag.  Prak.  kudhale,  Bihari  kolhii. 

th  >  h. 
§  206.     The  change  of  th  to  h  is  one  of  extreme  rarity  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kiifhdri  'axe,'  Bihari,  Hindi  kiihadd,  kul- 
harJ,  Panj.  kiihddd,  kulhddd,  kumlhdrd,  Sindhi,  Guj.  kuhdrO,  etc. 
(see  §  200). 

th  >  hr. 

§  207.     The  change  of  fh  to  hr  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kuthdri '  axe,'  Ur.  kuhrdri,  kutddl,  kutdrt,  etc. 
(see  §  200). 

d  =  d. 
§  208.     Indian   d   is   in  general   retained   unchanged    in   the 
Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pJdana  '  pressure,'  Prak.  j)<Ztt«a,  pcllana,  Pali 
pilana,  Hindi  pedand,  piiland,  Panj.  pulhand,  pcland,  veland, 
Sindhi  pidanu,  piranu,  Mar.  ptlanem. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  75 

d>t. 
§  209.     The  change  of  d  to  t  occurs  regularly  in  the  PaisacI 
Prakrit. 

a.    Indian.     Skt.   vadisa,   hadisa   'fish-hook,'   Prak.    hadisa, 
halisa,  Pais.  Prak.  vatisa,  Pali  halisa,  Hindi  balia. 

d>d. 

§  210.     The  decerebralization  of  Indian  d  occurs  very  rarely  in 

the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.    Skt.  '/daj)  '  to  collect,'  Ur.  dahiba,  Bang,  dahana, 

Hindi  dabana,  dabav,  dabel,  Panj.  dabband,  Sindhi  dabanu,  Guj. 

dabavmh,  Mar.  dabancm. 

d  >  r,  r. 

§  211.     The  change  of  d  to  r,  r,  is  particularly  characteristic  of 

the   East  New  Indian  dialects.     Such   an  r  developed  from  an 

original  d  may  often  become  r,  and  indeed  in  Hindi  r  and  r  are 

interchangeable.     In  the  West  New  Indian  dialects,  however,  d  is 

generally  retained  unchanged,  and  it   seldom   becomes   r,  r  (cf. 

§§  202,  203). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  pidana  '  pressure,'  Sindhi  pirmm,  indanu, 

etc.  (see  §  208).     Skt.  udiipa  '  boat,'  Pali  idumim,  Simh.  oni(va\ 

Maladive  odi. 

d>l 

§  212.     Tlie  change  of  d  to  I  is  one  of  the  most  frequent  of  all 

those  to  which  Indian  d  is  subject. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  dacllma,  dalima,  Prak.  dalima,  Pali  ddlinia, 

Hindi  darim,  Sindhi  darhum.     Skt.  hrldati  '  plays,'  Prak.  hilai^ 

Apab.  Prak.  Mladi,  Pah  Jiilati.     Skt.  sudasa  '  sixteen,'  Prak. 

solaha,  Jaina  Prak.  solasa,  Pali  solasa,  soraJia,  Kasm.  surah,  Ur. 

sohala,   Bang,  sola,  Biharl  sorah,   Hindi  solah,   Panj.   sdlam, 

Sindhi  sOraham,  Guj,  sol,  Mar.  sola. 

d  >  l 
§  213.    The  change  of  d  to  ?,  which  is  closely  akin  to  the  change 
discussed  in  the  preceding  paragraph,  occurs  quite  frequently  in 
the  Indian  dialects. 


76  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pldana  '  pressure,'  Mar.  pllanem,  etc.  (see 
§  208).  Skt.  udH])a  'boat,'  Pali  tdumpa,  etc.  (see  §  211).  Skt. 
Jcrodaka  '  lap,'  Apab.  Prak.  kolau,  Guj.  hold.  Skt.  sodasa  '  six- 
teen,' Prak.  solaha,  Jaina  Prak.  sohisa,  Pali  solasa,  Panj.  soUim, 
Guj.  sol,  Mar.  sola,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


dli  >  2'/'. 
§  214.     The  change  of  dh  to  rh  is  quite  common  in  the  New 
Indian  dialects,  especially  in  the  Eastern  languages  (cf.  §§  202, 
203,  211). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   mudlia   'fool,'   New  Ind.    dialects  (except 
Bang.,  Mar.)  tnfirlm. 

dh  >  r. 

§  215.     The  change  of  dh  to  r  occurs  very  rarely. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  mudhatva  '  folly,'  Prak.  mudJiattana,  Hindi 
muraJcJiapan,  Panj.  milraldiapuna. 

dh  >  I,  Ih. 
§  216.     The  change  of  dh  to  I,  Ih,  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   udvodha  '  bridegroom,'  Bang,  didln,  duldl, 
Hindi  didha.     Skt.  ududhd  '  bride,'  Hindi  dulhin,  Guj.  dulahi. 

dh  >  /,  IJi. 
§  217.     The  change  of  dh  to  I,  IJi,  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  drdha  '  firm,'  Prak.  dadJia,  Pali  dalha,  Simh. 
dala. 

n  >  n. 
§  218.  Tlie  change  of  n  to  n  is  not  frequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  excepting  in  the  PaisficT  Prakrit,  where  it  occurs  regulai'ly. 
a.  Indian.  Skt.  gimaganayuhta  '  equipped  with  a  host  of 
virtues,'  Pais.  Prak.  gunaganajtitta.  Skt.  hmhmana  '  Brahman,' 
Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Kapur  di  Giri)  h{r)amana,  lit.  Prak.  ham- 
hana,  Mahar.  Prak.  hamhhana,  Pali  hr^diniana. 

n  >  I,  l. 
§  219.     Tlie  change  of  n  to  I,  I,  is  excessively  rare  in  the  Indian 
dialects. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  77 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vdnija  'merchant,'  Prak.  vani{j)a,  Sirhh. 
velamda,  venamda. 

t  =  t 
§  220.     Indo-Iranian  t  remains  in  general  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  excepting  for  the  Iranian 
spirantization  of  ^  to  ^  before  consonants. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  timda  '  snout,'  Biharl  thomth, 
thor,  Hindi,  Panj.  iojud,  Guj.  dund,  Mar.  tonida^  kmd,  hind, 
ddi'nd.  Skt.  jyoti  '  light,'  Pali  juti,  Hindi  jot{i),  Panj.  jotand, 
Sindhi  jot{i),  Guj.  jot  Skt.  rfu  *■  season,'  Prak.  udu  (Saur.  and 
Miig.),  uu,  rill,  Pali  iitu,  Sindhi  ruti,  Guj.  rnt{n).  Mar.  ridu. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  rautah  '  river,'  Plil.  rot.  New  Pers. 
rod,  Bal.  rot,  Kurd.  ro.  Av.  tanii  '  body,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  tan, 
WaxI  tan,  §iyn.  tana,  Afy.  tan,  Oss.  thanag.  Av.  tarsna 
'  thirst,'  Phi.  tisn,  New  Pers.  tis,  Gab.  tasna,  Wax!  toa:(7),  Siyn, 
tasna,  Sarq.  f/f>^7),  Yidg.  trusna,  Afy.  #aiai,  Bal.  tunnag,  tilnag, 
N.  Bal.  ^/i««^,  Kurd.  ^7,  ^aw7.  Av.  paitidita  'seen,'  Plil.  dlto, 
New  Pers.  d'ldah,  Bal.  cZlto,  Kurd.  dit. 

t  >  i. 
§  221.     The  vocalization  of  Indo-Iranian  t  is  very  rare.     The 
stages  in  this  development  were  probably  t  to  d,  to  8,  to  i. 

h.  Iranian.  Av.  Joata  '  house,'  Phi.  kaiaJc,  New  Pers.  Jcadah, 
Zaf.  Z;7,  Kas.  hiyali,  Von.  ^^e,  Kuhr.  hiyah,  Nat.  ^/a/»,  WaxI  ^af, 
Siyn.  eld,  Sarq.  c^"(Z,  Minj.  hai,  Yidg.  A;?/^,  Yayn.  y^af.  Av.,  Old 
Pers.  hrdtar  'brother,'  Phi.  brdfar,  hrdt.  New  Pers.  hirddar, 
Kas.  hardi,  hard,  Gil.  brdr,  WaxI  vriit,  Siyn.  ■yiratZ,  Sarq.  vrod, 
Sangl.  vurd,  Yidg.  vrai,  Yayn.  virdt,  Afy.  vror,  Bal.  h'dt,  N.  Bal. 
6ra5,  hrdO,  Kurd,  hard,  virdd,  Dig.  Oss.  arvdda,  Tag.  arvdd.  Av. 
visaiti  '  twenty,'  Phi.  v7s^.  New  Pers.  &75^,  WaxI  v7s^,  Sarq.  vist, 
Bal.  ^7s^,  Dig.  Oss.  insai,  Tag.  sso;'. 

^  >9- 
§  222.     The  change  oi  t  to  g  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  dtars  '  fire,'  Phi.  atas,  New  Pers.  (a)^«l,  atis, 


78  JNDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Gab.  ta&,  §iyn.  yac,  Sarq.  yuc,  N.  Bal.  ac,  Kurd,  cujir,  ar,  er, 
Zaza  adir. 

t  >  c. 

§  223.     Tlie  change  of  ^  to  c  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.    tisthati   'stands,'    Pnlk.    ciitjiadi,    citfha'i, 

that  (cf.  also  cithitii  '  let  him  stand,'  inscriptions  of  Dhauli),  Pfili 

titthati,  thdti,  Ur.  cida,  time,  Hindi,  Panj.  the,  Sindhi  thic,  Guj. 

tlmy,  Mar.  tMnem. 

[Here  we  may  perhaps  note  the  change  of  ^  to  c  in  Kasmlrl 
under  the  influence  of  a  following  i  in  the  formation  of  the  femi- 
nine, e.g.,  Kasm.  mot  'foolish,'  fern.  7nuc  <*  motl.] 

t  >  t. 
§  224.     Tlie    cerebralization    of   Indo-Iranian    t    occurs    quite 

frequently  in  the  Indian  dialects.      It  is  especially  common  in 

Sindhi. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Pali  tilaka  'sectarial  mark,'  Ur.,  Bang. 
tika,  Hindi  tlka,  Panj.  t'lkka,  Sindhi  t'lhd,  Guj.  tilu,  filT,  tilj), 
Mar.  tika,  tiU.  Skt.  prati  '  toward,'  Prak.  pati,  padi,  Pali  pafi. 
Skt.  tamra  'copper,'  Prak.  tamba,  tamhira,  Ass.  tam,  Kasm. 
tram,  Ur.,  Bang,  tdma,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  tamha,  tamCi, 
Sindhi  tamo,  Guj.  tamhii,  trmibum,  Mar.  tdnibcm,  Siriih.  iamhara. 

t  >  th. 
§  225.     The  change  of  t  to  tJt  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tunda  '  snout,'  Bihari  thumth,  thor,  etc.  (see 
§  220).     Skt.  vrtti  '  business,'  Prak.  vatti,  Sindhi  vathi. 

t  >d. 
§  226.     Tlie  change  of  t  to  d  is  not  infrequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  being  much  more  common  than  the  change  of  t  to  t. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  patati  '  falls,'  Prak.  padai,  Pali  patati,  Ur. 
padikd,  Bang,  padand,  Hindi  parand,  Sindhi  imvanu,  Guj. 
padavum.  Mar.  padaneih,  paranem,  Gyp.V/>er.  Skt.  patdhd 
'  banner,'  Prak.  padaya,  Jaina  Prak.  paddgd,  Pali  patakd.  Skt. 
taJcsan  '  carpenter,'  Sindhi  dakhanu. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  79 

t  >  th,  6. 

§  227.  Tlie  change  of  t  to  tJi,  6,  is  rare  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects,  apart  from  the  change  of  ^  to  ^  according 
to  the  Iranian  law  of  spirantization  and  excepting  th  developed 
from  t  in  North  BalucI  and  Ossetish. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  trpyati  '  rejoices/  Prak.  thippm.  Skt.  (ipata 
'  path,'  Pali  dpdtlia. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tapayeiti  'warms,'  Phi.  tdftano,  New  Pers. 
tdhad,  Gab.  to,  Kas.  tovun,  WaxI  davam,  Siyn.  tabam,  Sarq. 
davam,  Afy.  taha,  Bal.  tap,  N.  Bal.  thap,  tJiaf,  Kurd,  tdv,  Dig. 
Oss.  thaft,  Tag.  thavin.  Av.  tdrdsaiti  'fears,'  Plil.  tmsitam, 
New  Pers.  tarsulan,  Afy.  tarJicdal,  Bal.  tursay,  trusag,  N.  Bal. 
tlmrsay,  Kurd,  tirsin,  Dig.  Oss.  tharsmi.  Tag.  tharsin.  Av.,  Old 
Pers.  data  '  law,'  Phi.  ddt.  New  Pers.  ddd,  Bal.  fZa^a,  N.  Bal. 
ddda,  ddsd.  Av.  hrdtar  '  brother,'  N.  Bal.  hrdQ,  hrds,  etc.  (see 
§  221). 

t>  d. 

§  228.  Tlie  change  of  the  tenuis  t  to  the  media  d  is  very  common 
both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tatah  '  thence,'  Mahar.  Prak.  tatto,  Saur. 
Prak.  tado,  Apab.  Prak.  daii,  Pali  tato.  Skt.  tdvat  'so  long,' 
Saur.  Prak.  ddva,  PaU  tdva.  Skt.  (/«te  'gone,'  Saur.,  Mag. 
Prak.  gads,  Pais.  Prak.  gata,  Apab.  Prak.  gadii,  Pali  gata, 
Siriih.  </%«,  Gyp.  gelo.  Skt.  Z;f  ifa  '  done,'  Mag.  Prak.  kade,  hade, 
Ardhamag.,  Avant.,  Sakari  Prak.  hala,  Pais.  Prak.  Icata,  Apab. 
Prak.  Tiidu,  Pali  hata,  kata,  Old  Hindi  kiya,  Biharl  kail,  kail, 
kayal,  Sindhi  kio.  Skt.  uta  '  or,'  Prak.  ua,  Pali  uda.  Skt.  te 
'  of  thee,'  Prak.  de,  te. 

b.  Iranian,  Av.  vdta  '  wind,'  Phi.  vat,  New  Pers.  6a(i,  Gab. 
vad,  Siv.  vai,  Zaf.  vo,  Ka§.  voi.  Von.,  Kuhr.,  Nay.  vod,  Nat.  vftf?, 
Maz.  vd.  Tat  wr,  Afy.  i7o,  Bal.  gvdt,  N.  Bal.  (/m^,  gvds,  Kurd,  ha, 
vdi,  Oss.  vdd.  Av.  hrdtar  '  brother,'  New  Pers.  birddar,  Siyn. 
t;irac?,  Sarq.  wof?,  Sangl.  v^n?,  Kurd,  virdd,  hard,  Dig,  Oss. 
arvdda,  Tag.  ary«(?,  etc.  (see  §  221).     Av.  vaeti  '  willow,'  Phi. 


so  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

vcfj  New  Pers.  led,  Gab.  vJd,  Siv.  vl,  Zaf.  ve,  Von.  v7f7,  Kuhr. 
vet,  Afy.  vrt^/,  Bal.  geO,  Kurd,  vl,  hi.  Av.  tava  '  of  thee,'  New 
Pers.  tu,  Afy.  ^a,  Kurd.  ti(,  Dig.  Oss.  cZw,  Tag.  di. 

t  >  y. 
§  229.    The  change  oi  t  to  y  in  the  Indo-Iranian  dialects  is  only 
an  apparent  one,  y  being  actually  inserted  to  prevent  the  hiatus 
caused  by  the  loss  of  an  interv^ocalic  t  (see  §§  122,  137,  143,  16-4, 
183). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  itara  '  other,'  Prak.  iara,  Mahar.  Prak,  iyara. 
Skt.  kdtara  *  coward,'  Apab.  Prak.  Jcdyaru,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Guj. 
Jcayar,  Mar.  Jcdmrd. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  matar  'mother,'  Phi.  mdt{ar),  New  Pers. 
mddar,  Gab.,  Siv.  mdya,  Kas.  mdi,  moya,  Von.  DiOa,  Maz.  mar, 
mur,  Gil.  mdar,  mur,  Tal.  tnii.  Tat  mdi,  Siyn.  mad,  Minj.  mdyd. 
Av.,  Old  Pers.  ^i^ar  '  father,'  Phi.  pii[ar).  New  Pers,  pidar,  Gab. 
j?ar,  Ka§.  2;'a?,  '^acif.  pi,])ayi,  ^lyn.  pad,  Saxq.  pit,  Aiy.  pldr,  Bal. 
pit,  N.  Bal.  ^7i»5,  _^/ii^,  Dig.  Oss,  fida,  Tag.  /c?. 

t  >  r. 
§  230.  The  change  of  ^  to  r  (in  the  Indian  dialects  through  the 
transition-grades  d,  d,  r)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  saptati  '  seventy,'  Prak,,  Pali  sattari,  Naip. 
sattari,  Kasm.  satat,  Ur.  sattori,  Bang.,  Biharl,  Hindi,  Panj. 
sattar,  Sindhi  satari,  Guj.  siter.  Mar.  sattar. 

b,  Iranian.     Av.  vdta  '  wind,'  Tat  vdr,  etc.  (see  §  228). 

t  >  I 
§  231.  The  change  of  ^  to  Z  is  very  rare  in  the  Indo-Iranian 
dialects,  excepting  in  Afyan,  where  t  regularly  becomes  I,  unless 
the  t  is  protected  by  a  voiceless  consonant. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  krta  '  done/  Ardhamag.,  Avant.,  Sakarl  Prak. 
Jcala,  Biharl  Jcail,  Mil,  Jcayal  (similarly  in  all  j^crf.  part,  in 
Biharl),  etc.  (see  §  228). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  j^itar  '  father,'  Afy.  pldr,  etc.  (see  §  229). 
Av.  vaCti  '  willow,'  Afy.  vala,  etc.  (see  §  228). 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  81 

t  >  V. 
§  232.     The  change  of  ^  to  v  is  only  apparent,  v  being  actually 
inserted  to  prevent  the  liiatus  arising  from  the  loss  of  an  inter- 
vocalic t  (cf.  §§  123,  138,  144,  184).     The  phenomenon  is  very 
rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  afapa  '  sunshine,'  Pali  attipa,  Siihh.  av{u)va. 
Skt.  mcitar  '■  mother,'  Prak.  mm,  Pali  matar,  Hindi  ma{;i),  mail, 
Panj.  mail,  maiXm,  mdmu,  ma{i),  Sindhi  rnciu,  Elu  mava,  Simh. 
mav{u),  md. 

t  >  s. 
§  233.     The  change  of  f  to  s  is  excessively  rare,  excepting  in 
Simhalese  and  North  Balucl. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tuccha  '  empty,'  Prak.  c{h)i(ccha,  Pali  tucclia, 
Sirhh.  sis,  his. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  delta  4aw,'  N".  Bal.  ddsd,  ddda,  etc.  (see 
§  227).    Av.  hratar  '  brother,'  N.  Bal.  hras,  hraO,  etc.  (see  §  221). 

f  >  li. 
§  234.     The  change  of  t  to  li  is  very  rare,  excepting  in  Simha- 
lese, where  the  h  is  a  further  development  of  the  5  arising  from  an 
original  t  (see  preceding  §). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tucclia  '  empty,'  Prak.  c{h)uccJia,  Pali  tuccha, 
Siihh.  his,  sis. 

Syncope  of  t. 

§  235.  The  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  t  is  quite  frequent  both  in  the 
Middle  and  in  the  New  periods  of  the  Indo-Iranian  languages.  The 
syncope  occurs  more  often  in  the  Middle  than  in  the  New  Inchan 
dialects,  and  more  commonly  in  the  Iranian  than  in  the  Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cafurtha  '  fourth,'  Prak.  cauWia,  caUttha, 
cottha,  Ur.  cdudlia,  Bang,  cdudd,  Hindi,  Panj.  cduthd,  Sindhi, 
Guj.  cotho,  Mar.  cdmhthd.  Skt.  sata  'himdred,'  Prak.  saa, 
say  a,  Pais.  Prak.  sata,  Pali  sata,  Kasm.  hath,  Ur.  sae^  Bang. 

a 


82  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

saya,  Biharl  sau,  Hindi,  Panj.  sai,  sdu,  Sindhi  sdu,  Guj,  so, 
Mar,  sem,  samhhar.  Skt.  2)ifar  *  father,'  Prak.  2>i((,  Pali  ];)itar^ 
Hindi  2iiu,  Panj.  inn,  Sindhi  })iu,  Sirhh.  piya.  Skt.  matar 
'  mother,'  Prak.  7)idd,  Hindi  nid{i),  nidil,  Panj.  Oiidii,  mdilm, 
mdmu,  /wa(^),  Sindhi  mail,  Simh.  wia,  mav{u\  etc.  (see  §  232). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  mdfar  'mother,'  Ka§.  7ndi,  moi/a,  Von.  moa, 
Maz.  mdr,  mur,  Gil.  mdar^  mor,  Till,  mil,  Tat  mOi^  etc.  (see 
§  229).  Skt.  jata  '  swift,'  Phi.  ^ilf,  New  Pers.  ^ud,  Maz.  ^7,  Tal., 
Tat  jsil,  Bal.  zut,  ^U,  N.  Bal.  ^W,  Kurd.  zii.  Av.  vdta  '  wind,' 
Siv.  vdi,  Zaf.  i;o,  Kas.  voi,  Maz.  I'rt,  Afy.  vu,  Kurd,  hd,  vdi,  etc. 
(see  §  228). 

E])enthesis  of  t. 

§  236.     Epenthetic  t  is  an  extremely  rare  phenomenon. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  asm  'tear,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  ars,  Kas.  asl, 
Maz.  rtsr,  Afy.  Osciy  Bal.  «Zs,  Kurd.  {li)istir,  asr. 


th  =  tk 

§  237.     Indo-Iranian  th  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  Pali  mathana  '  churning,' Bang,  matliana, 
mdthd,  Hindi  mathand,  maliand,  mafhd,  Sindhi  niat/ianu,  Guj. 
mathavum,  mapiU,  Mar.  ma{)H)tlianc)h,  mdtlian.  Skt.  yutlia 
'  herd,'  Mahar.  Prak.  julia,  Pali  yutlia^  Hindi  jcdh,  jathd,  Panj. 
ji'ih,  Guj.  jathd,  Mar.  jafhancm. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  luiOana  '  broad,'  Plil.  ])ahan,  New  Pers. 
pahn,  Kas.  j;ew,  xmhan,  pan,  Afy.  j>Za»,  Bal.  patan,  Kurd.  ^a«, 
Oss.  fathan.  Av.  ^/w^a  '  excrement,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  guh,  Kas. 
gus,  WaxI  gii,  gi,  Siyn.  yad,  Yayn.  yilt{ah),  Afy.  yul,  N.  Bal.  .97^, 
Kurd. /7i7.  Ay.  fradanjayeiti  '  harnesses,' New  Pers.  tanj'idan, 
BaL  tajBnag,  Dig.  Oss.  ithinjim.  Tag.  thinjin. 

th  >  th. 

^  238.     The  cerebralization  of  ludo-Iranian  th  occurs  rarely  in 
the  Indian  dialects. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  83 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pratliama  'first,'  Priik.  })adhania,  Pali 
pntliama,  Ass.  ponar,  Naip.  paliilo,  Bihari  paliil,  pahtl^  Hindi, 
Panj.  jyalnld,  Sinclhl  jjaJianjom,  piMr{y)om., paJierya,  Guj.  pvJicld, 
pehalum,  Max.  pahild,  ^iixih..  palamii. 

th  >  dh. 

§  239.  Tlie  change  of  th  to  dh  is  more  frequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects  than  the  simple  cerebralization  of  an  original  th. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sithila  '  slack/  Prak.  sidhila,  Pali  sithila, 
safhila,  Ur.  dhil'l,  Bang,  dhtld,  Hindi  dJnJd,  Panj.  dhilla, 
Sindhi  dJiilo,  dhiro,  Guj.  dhUmh,  Mar.  dhild.  Skt.  mcfhi  'post,' 
Prak.  nicdhi,  Mar.  mcdhl,  medhd. 

th  >  t. 

§  240.  The  deaspirization  of  Indo-Iranian  tli  is  excessively 
rare,  except  in  Balucl. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  Tiathd  '  tale,'  Bang.  (Burdwan) 
hatd. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  fraOanjayeiti  '  harnesses,'  New  Pers.  tanjl- 
dan,  Bal.  tajenag,  etc.  (see  §  237).  Av.  maeOana  '  abode,'  Phi., 
New  Pers.  mehcm,  Bal.  metag. 

th  >  dh. 

§  241.     The  change  of  th  to  dh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  atha  'thus,'  Saur.,  Pais.  Prak.  adha,  Pali 
atha.  Skt.  tathd  '  so,'  §aur.  Prak.  tadhd,  Pah  tathd.  Skt. 
vyatliayafi  'trembles,'  Pali  vedhati. 

th  >  y. 

§  242.  The  insertion  of  y  to  prevent  the  hiatus  caused  by  the 
loss  of  an  original  intervocalic  tit  is  exceedingly  rare  (cf.  §§  122, 
137,  143,  164,  183,  229). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ra/7ia  '  cart,' Apab.  Prak.  raJni,  Prdi  ratha, 
Simh.  riya. 

G  2 


8i  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

th  >  I. 

§  243.     The  change  of  th  to  I  is  excessively  rare,  excepting  in 
Afyan. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  paOana  '  broad,'  Afy.  plan,  etc.  (see  §  237). 
Av.  guda  '  excrement/  Af/.  yiil,  etc.  (see  §  237). 

th  >  I 

§  244.     The  change  of  th  to  Z  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ;prathama  'first,'  Simh.  palamu,  etc.  (see 
§  238). 

§  245.    The  change  of  th  to  h  is  by  far  the  most  frequent  one  of 
all  the  changes  to  which  Indo-Iranian  th  is  subject. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  athavd  '  or,'  Prak.  aJiavd,  Apab.  ahava'i, 
inscriptions  of  Girnar,  Dhauli,  and  Khalsi  aho,  Pali  athavd. 
Skt.  ratha  'cart,'  Apab.  Prak.  rahu,  etc.  (see  §  242).  Skt. 
hathana  'speech,'  Prak.  kahana,  Pali  Jcathana,  Ur.  Jcahihd, 
Bang.  Jcahite,  Hindi  hahand,  Panj.  kahind,  Sindhi  hahanu,  Guj. 
Jcehavum.  Skt.  prathama  'first,'  Naip.  ijahilo,  Biharl  pahil, 
pahelj  Hindi,  Panj.  pahild,  Sindhi  paharyom,  inhir{y)om,  jia- 
herya,  Guj.  pehclo,  pehalum,  Mar.  pahild,  etc.  (see  §  238).  Skt. 
gdthd  'song,'  Prak.  gdhd,  Prdi  gdthd,  Old  Hindi  gdhd,  Sindhi 
gdi.  Skt.  prth{i)vi  '  earth,'  Prak.  puhav't,  pulnm,  pudhavl,  Pali 
pathavi,  puthavl,  puthum,  pathavi,  Old  Hindi  puhumi. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  maeOana  'abode,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  mchan, 
etc.  (see  §  240).  Av.  padana  '  broad,'  Phi.  pahan,  New  Pers. 
pahn,  Kus.  pahan,  pan,  pen,  etc.  (see  §  237).  Av.  guda  '  excre- 
ment,' Pill.,  New  Pers.  guh,  etc.  (see  §  237).  Av.  gaeOanqm  '  of 
creatures,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  gchdn. 


d  =  d. 
\  246.     Indo-Iranian  d  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  in 
the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  da^a  'ten,'  Prak.  dasa,  Saur.  Prak.  daha, 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  85 

Pali  dasa,  Kasm.  dahn,  Ur.,  Bang.,  BiharT,  Hindi  das,  Panj. 
das,  dah,  Sinclhl  dah,  Guj.  das,  Mar.  daJid.  Skt.  dasati  '  bites,' 
Pali  dasati,  Ur.  daihhihd,  dams,  Bang,  dams,  ddms{a),  Hindi 
dams{aJc),  damik,  Sindhi  danigami,  Mar.  dams,  ddmcancm,  dam- 
hliancm,  dasanem.  Skt.  yadi  4f/  Prak.  jai,  Jaina  Prak.  jati, 
Faliyadi,  Hindi  j ad,  jc,  jo,  Panj.,  Sindhi  je. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dacman  'face,'  Plil.  andemankar,  Paz.  andi- 
mdni.  New  Pers.  dim,  Sir.,  Zaf.,  Ka§.  dim,  Kuhr.  ^im,  dum, 
Afy.  Ze;;^rt.  Av.  dantan  'tooth,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  danddn,  WaxI 
dundiih,  Siyn.,  Sarq.  Mnddn,  Minj.  Zcmc?,  Bal.  dantan,  N.  Bal. 
datMn,  dhantlidn,  Kurd,  diddn,  Oss.  dandag.  Av.  j;a8a  '  foot,' 
Phi.  jpa?,  New  Pers.  j^a{i),  WaxI  ^zt5,  Siyn.  j?a5,  Sarq.  ;pah, 
Sangl.  xjud,  Minj.  palali,  Yidg.  'pidluli,  Yayn,  ^?<cZa,  Afy.  pal, 
Bal.  jjacZ,  N.  Bal.  phdh,  phdz,  Zaza  ^;ai. 

cZ  >  i. 

§  247.     The  vocalization  of  Indo-Iranian  d  through  the  transi- 
tion-grade 8  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  paha  '  foot/  Phi.  pal,  New  Pers.  pd{i),  Zaza 
pal,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

fZ  >  lih,  X. 
\  248.     The  change  of  d  to  lili,  oc,  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Iran,  ^ni  +  Vdnl)  'to  liide,'  New  Pers.  nilmftan, 
Km-d.  nixiftin  (very  doubtful). 

d>  g. 

§  249.     The  change  of  d  to  g  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dadrfighna  '  good  for  leprosy,'  Pali  gaddii- 
Jiana  (the  change  of  d  to  g  in  this  word  is  due  to  dissimilation 
from  the  second  d  and  assimilation  to  the  following  gJi). 

d  >  jh. 

§  250.     The  change  of  d  to  jh  occurs  with  extreme  rarity, 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  duhitar '  daughter/  Prak.  dlvi(ij)d,  6aur.  Prak. 


86  IXDO-IRAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

dhuda,  dhtdd,  Prili  dhlfd,  dhitam,  Ass.  ji,  Ur.  jhia,  Bang,  jht, 
Hindi,  Panj.  dlii{ya\  Sindhl  dhlii,  dhiy,  Guj.  dhi(]ijd). 

d  >  d. 
§  251.      The  cerebralization  of  Indo-Iranian  d  is  found  quite 
frequently  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  daliati  'burns,'  Prak.  daha'i,  Pali  dahati, 
Hindi  ddh,  dah,  Sindhi  dah.  Skt.  ^hrdaka  'hearty,'  Mag. 
Prak.  liaddkha.  Skt.  diita  '  messenger,'  Jaina  Prak.  duya,  Pali 
dilta.  Skt.  dasati  '  bites,'  Bang.  dcms{d),  dams,  Hindi  daniiJc, 
dams{aJc),  Sindhi  damgami,  Mar.  ddihcanem,  dasancm,  damJcha- 
nem,  dams,  etc.  (see  §  246).  Skt.  pravada  'narrative,'  Pali 
2)avdda,  Hindi,  Sindhi  pavdr,  Guj.  pavdd,  Mar.  pavddd.  Skt. 
dold  'swing,'  Prak.  dold,  Pali  dold,  Biharl  dor,  dor,  Hindi  dol{d), 
doll,  dol{d),  doliJc,  Panj.,  Sindhi  doU,  Guj.  doa,  dolavum.  Mar. 
dold,  doll,  dola,  doli,  Anglo-Ind.  doolij. 

d>t 
§  252.     The  change  of  the  voiced  d  to  the  voiceless  t  is  regular 
in  the  Paisilcl  Prakrit,  but  elsewhere  it  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  durgd  '  name  of  ParvatI,'  Pais.  Prak.  tiikkd. 
Skt.  pradesa  '  district,'  Pais.  Prak.  patesa,  Pali  padcsa.  Skt. 
yadi  '  if,'  Jaina  Prak.  jati,  etc.  (see  §  246). 

d  >  th. 
§  253.     The  change  of  d  to  th  occurs  very  rarely  in  Ossetish. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dabaiti  'gives,'  Plil.  ddtano.  New  Pers. 
dddan,  Samn.  dam,  Maz.  hadia,  Gil.  fandi,  Tal.  diah,  WaxI 
rahnn,  Siyn.  hiam,  Sarq.  ham,  Afy.  lal,  Bal.  dcag,  N.  Bal.  dcay, 
Kurd,  dan,  Dig.  Oss.  dadthun.  Tag.  daththin.  Av.  daroya 
'  long,'  Old  Pers.  darga,  Afy.  Idrya,  Kurd.,  Oss.  darg,  but  Oss. 
ihanius  'hare'  (lit.  'long-car,'  cf.  New  Pers.  dardsgos  'hare, 
donkey '). 

d  >  dh,  h. 

§  254.     The  aspirization  of  an  original  d  is  found  both  in  the 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  87 

Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects  apart  from  the  regular  change 
in  Iranian  of  d  tor 8  before  consonants. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  duhitar  '  daughter/  Prak.  dln[y)a,  Saur.  Prak. 
dhuda,  dMdd,  Pali  dhtta,  dhitara,  Hindi,  Panj.  dhi{ya\  Sindlil 
dhiu,  dhiy,  Guj.  dhl{yd),  etc.  (see  §  250).  Skt.  drnihita  'firm,' 
Jaina  Prak.  dhaniya. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dasa  'ten,'  Phi.  daJiuni,  New  Pers.  dah, 
WaxI  bas,  las,  Siyn.  his,  lis,  Sarq.  bcs,  Sangl.  das,  Yidg.  his, 
Yayn.  das,  Afy.  las,  Kurd,  dav,  Zaza  das,  Oss.  das{am).  Av. 
dahaiti  'gives,'  WaxI  raodn,  Siyn.  hiam,  Sarq.  ham,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §).  Av.  paha  'foot,'  WaxI  piih,  Siyn.  pah,  Sarq.  j^;a8, 
N.  Bal.  phdd,  phdz,  etc.  (see  §  246).  Av.  x^aeha  '  sweat,'  Phi. 
x^'ede,  x^at,  New  Pers.  x^^ai,  WaxI  ;ri?,  Sarq.  xaih,  Afy.  ic'^ctZc, 
Bal.  hed,  N.  Bal.  7ic8,  Kurd,  xil,  xoli,  xoi,  Oss.  xac?. 

d  >  n. 
§  255.     Tlie  change  of  d  to  n  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  navadasa  'nineteen,'  Plil.  navdcdaJmm,  New 
Pers.  nuvdzdahum,  Afy.  niinas,  nidas.  Dig.  Oss.  naudas,  Tag. 

§  256.  The  change  of  fZ  to  ^  is  only  apparent,  the  y  being 
really  inserted  to  prevent  the  hiatus  caused  by  the  loss  of  an 
original  intervocalic  d  (cf.  §§  122,  137,  143,  164,  183,  229,  242). 
Tlie  phenomenon  is  much  more  infrequent  in  the  Iranian  than  in 
the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Jchddita  '  eaten,'  Prak.  hliaia,  Mahar.  Prak. 
Jchalya,  Pali  khayita,  Panj,  lihddhd,  Guj.  kJiddJw,  Mar.  Widlld. 
Skt.  Jirdaya  'heart,'  Prak.  Jiiaya,  liiaa,  Pali  hadaya.  Ass.,  Ur., 
Biharl  Jiia,  Hindi  hiyd,  Panj.  hiydm,  Jiiamh,  Sindhi  Mmimiu, 
Mar.  Jiiyyd,  liiyem.  Gyp.  {y)ild.  Skt.  ddvsa  '  order,'  Pali  ddesa. 
Old  Biharl  dycsu,  dcsu,  dyasu,  aisu.  Skt.  pada  'foot,'  Prak. 
paa,  Mahar.  Prak.  pada,  Hindi  pd{m)v,  Panj.  pd{m)v,  pdmh, 
Simh.  pay  a,  piya. 

b.  Iranian.      Skt.  Jchddati  'eats,'  New  Pers.  xdyad,  Kurd. 


88  jyDO-IBAXIAN  FIIONOLOGY 

xdin.    Phi.  xadfi{li)  '  saliva,'  New  Pers.  xayu^  xadii.    New  Pcrs. 
hdddm  '  almond,'  Siyn.,  Sarq.  vcujdm,  Kurd.  hCiliw,  haw. 

d  >  r. 
§  257.     The  change  of  d  to  r  is  not  a  frequent  one. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tddrsa  '  such,'  Prak.  tdrisa,  Pais.  Prak. 
tdtisa,  Pali  tddisa.  Skt.  ttddrsa  '■  such,'  Mahar.  Prak.  cydrlsa, 
edrisa,  Pali  cr/sa,  edisa.  Skt.  gadgada  '  stammering,'  Prak. 
gaggara.  Skt.  cJcadasa  '  eleven,'  Prak.  edraha,  Pali  ekarasa, 
cicadasa,  Kasm.  Z:a/<-,  Ur.,  Bang,  egdra,  Biharl  eggdrah,  Hindi 
igdraJi,  ggdrah,  Panj.  gidrdm,  Sindhi  iJcdraJtam,  ydraliamy  Guj. 

o^iar,  Mar.  akard. 

d>l 

§  258.  The  change  of  d  to  I  is  quite  frequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  but  it  is  very  rare  indeed  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  excepting 
in  the  Afyan. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hadamba  '  sort  of  tree,'  Prak.  Jcalamha.  Skt. 
iwadlpta  '■  kindled,'  Prak.  pal'wa,  palitta,  Mahar.  Prak.  pallviya, 
Jaina  Prak.  palitta^  Biharl  pallt  Skt.  doJiada,  dohala  '  longing 
of  a  pregnant  woman,'  Prak.  dohala,  dohala,  dohada,  Pali 
dohala. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dasa  'ten,'  Wax!  las,  bas,  Siyn.  lis,  bis, 
Yidg.  lus,  Afy.  las,  etc.  (see  §  254).  Av.  ^;a8a  'foot,'  Minj. 
palah,  Yidg.  pidluh,  Afy.  pal,  etc.  (see  §  246).  Phi.  x^atdi 
*God,'  New  Pers.  xuddi,  Siyn.,  Sarq.  qudd,  Kurd,  xade,  xude, 
Mukri  xola.     Av.  frazgabaiti  '  hastens  forth,'  Afy.  zyoli. 

d  >  I. 
§  259.     nic  change  of  d  to  I  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dohada,  dohala  'longing  of  a  pregnant 
woman,'  Prak.  dohala,  dohada,  dohala,  Pali  dohala. 

d  >  V. 
§  260.     The  change  of  d  to  v  is  only  apparent,  v  being  actually 
inserted  to  prevent  the  hiatus  caused  by  the  loss  of  an  original 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  89 

intervocalic  d  (cf.  §§  123,  138,  144,  184,  232).     The  phenomenon 

is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hadali  'phxntain,'  Prak.  karall,  Jcmjall,  hell, 
Pali  Jcadcdi,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  Jcaycdd,  Mid,  Sindhi 
Ticiyald,  Jcela,  dimin.  Jcevido,  Guj.  Jcti,  Jeer,  Mar.  Jcel,  Siihh.  Jcehel, 
hesel. 

d  >  h. 

§  261.  Tlie  change  of  d  to  li  is  very  rare  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hadcdl  '  plantain,'  Suhh.  Jcclicl,  liesel  {s  by 
false  analogy),  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  pddiha  'quarter,' 
Ur.  iKihl,  Bang,  jifl?,  Hindi  jx«,  Anglo-Ind.  ^;?e. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  hdddm  '  almond,'  Kurd,  hdhlv,  hmv, 
etc.  (see  §  256). 

Syncope  of  d. 

§  262.  Tlie  syncope  of  Indo-Iranian  d  is  less  frequent  in  the 
Iranian  than  in  the  Indian  dialects.  In  Iranian  the  loss  of  d 
occurs  especially  in  the  Persian  dialects  and  in  Kurdish. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  7iadi  'river,'  Prak.  nat,  Pali  nadl,  New 
Ind.  dialects  nadl,  W.  Bang,  also  ladt.  Skt.  kadaU  '  plantain,' 
Prak.  keli,  hayall,  Tiarali,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  lield,  hayald, 
Sindhi  held,  k  ay  aid,  Guj.  kel,  kcr,  Mar.  kcl,  etc.  (see  §  260). 
Skt.  khddana  '  meal,'  Prak.  klidana,  Pali  khddana,  Ur.  khd'ihd, 
Bang,  khd'ite,  Hindi  kJidna,  Panj.  khdnd,  Sindlil  kJiainu,  Guj. 
klidvum.  Mar.  klidnem.  Skt.  sarad  '  autumn,'  Prak.  saraa, 
Mahar.  Prak.  saraya,  Pali  sarada,  Sindhi  saraii. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  naddram  '  I  have  not,'  Maz.  ndrmaJi, 
Gil.  naramah,  but  hadam  '  I  give.'  Skt.  padika  '  traveller,'  Phi. 
Xjaik,  New  Pers.  paig  (cf.  Mahar.  Prak.  loan-word  from  New 
Pers.  pdikka). 

Epenthesis  of  d. 

§  263.  The  epenthesis  of  d  is  very  rare  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects. 


90  IX DO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  pahcadasa  '  fifteen/  Prak.  pannaraha,  Pali 
pahcadasa,  Kasm.  pandnli,  Ur.  pandhar,  Bang,  pomra,  Bihar! 
pandarah,  Hindi  pamdrah,  Panj.  pamdardm,  Sindhi  pamdra- 
ham,  pamdhrdm,  Guj.  pamdar,  Mar.  pamdhara. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ddna  'grain/  Plil.  dCmal',  New  Pers.  ddnah, 
Sarq.  ddna,  Kurd.  daudaJc,  ddnaJcJ. 


dh  =  dh. 
§  264.     Indo-Iranian  dh  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhuvala  'white/  Prak.,  Pali  dhavala,  Ur., 
Bang,  dhald,  Hindi  dhdidd,  Sindhi  dhdumro,  Guj.  dholum,  Mar. 
dhavd,  dhaval.  Skt.  dJuivaJca  'washerman,'  Ur.,  Bang,  dhohd, 
dhOpd,  Hindi  dhohd.  Skt.  Jcsudhd  '  hunger,'  Maliar.  Prak. 
Jchuhd,  Prdi  Jchudd,  Hindi  khiidhd,  Panj.  IJmddhid. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  haoihi  '  perfume,'  Plil.  hod,  hoi,  New  Pers. 

hoi,  Gab.  hud,  WaxI  vid,  Sarq.  hdo,  Bal.  hud,  N.  Bal.  hoh,  hos, 

Oss.  hud. 

dh  >  d. 

§  265.     Tlie  change  of  dh  to  d  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhrsta  '  bold,'  Prak.  dhiffha,  dhaffha,  Naip. 
dhiu'nto,  Hindi,  Panj.  dJutJt,  Sindhi  difhu. 

dh  >  dh. 
§  266.     The  cerebralization  of  Indo-Iranian  dh  is  not  found 
very  frequently  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhrsta  '  bold,'  Prak.  dhittha,  dhattha,  Hindi, 
Panj.  dJuth,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  VdJiakk  'destroy,'  Prak. 
diiaJiJcai,  Ur.  dhaJcand,  dhdmhand,  Bang,  dhdhite,  Hindi  dhakJcd, 
Panj.  dhalcM,  Sindhi  dhalanu,  dhihO,  Guj.  dhdmJcavum,  Mai-. 
dhdmkanem. 

dh  >  t 

§  267.     The  change  of  dh  to  t  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhdrayati  '  holds,'  Prak.  dharat,  Pali  dhdreti, 
Siitih.  terenavd,  daranava,  Gyp.  Vther, 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  91 

dh  >  d. 

§  268.  The  deaspirization  of  Indo-Iranian  dh  is  the  most 
frequent  change  to  which  it  is  subject  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dharma  '■  virtue/  Prak.,  Pali  dhamma,  Kasm. 
daram,  Elu  daham,  Simh.  dam.  Skt.  dhattura  'thorn-apple,' 
Kasm.  daftur,  Ur.  dhutitrd,  dhudura,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  dha- 
ttird,  Sindhi  dhdtitrd,  Guj,  dJiatilro,  Mar.  dhatilrd.  Skt.  ksudhd 
'  hunger,'  Pali  JcJmdd,  etc.  (see  §  264).  Skt.  inadhu  '  mead,' 
Mahar.  Prak.  maJiit,  Pali  madlni,  Hindi  mad,  iiiadJm,  Sindhi 
maduj  Mar.  madhu,  Gyp.  inol. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  dhamati  'blows,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  dam, 
Dig.  Oss.  dimmn,  Tag.  dimin.  Av.  haoiH  '  perfume,'  Phi.  hud, 
1)01,  Gab.  Md,  Bal.  tud,  Oss.  hud,  etc.  (see  §  264). 

dh  >  hh. 

§  269.     The  change  of  dh  to  hJt.  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  samninmdhati  'impedes,'  Pali  sannirmh- 
hh  at  I,  sann  irum  liati. 

dh  >  If. 
§  270.     The  change  of  dh  to  p  is  only  apparent,  y  being  really 
introduced  to  prevent  the  liiatus  arising  from  the  loss  of  an  inter- 
vocahc  dh  (cf.   §§  122,  137,  143,  183,  229,  242,  256).     The  phe- 
nomenon is  not  common. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  madhura  '  sweet,'  Mahar.  Prak.  mahura, 
Pali  madhura,  Simh.  miyuru. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  vadhu  '  bride,'  New  Pers.  hayo,  Judaeo- 
Pers.  hayOg,  Kurd,  hi'di.  Av.  mabu  'wine/  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
mai^  Oss.  mud. 

dh  >  I. 

§  271.  The  change  of  dh  to  I  is  quite  rare  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.    Skt.  grhagodhiJcd  '  lizard,'  Pali  gharagoliJcd. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  haoihi  'perfume/  WaxI  vid,  etc.  (see  §  264). 


92  ly DO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

(Ih  >  V. 
§  272.     The  change  of  cVi  to  v  is  only  apparent,  v  being  actually 
inserted  to  prevent  the  hiatus  arising  from  the  loss  of  dh  (cf. 
§§  123,  138,  144,  184,  232,  260). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  tidadhara  '  balance-holding,'  Simh.  tulavaru. 

dh  >  h. 
§  273.     The  change  of  dh  to  h  is  quite  frequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ausadhi  '  drug,'  Prak.  osaha,  osadha,  Pali 
osadhi.  Skt.  sadhu  'good,'  Prak.  sahu,  Pali  sddhii,  Biharl  sdh, 
Sindhi  sdii.  Skt.  hadhira  '  deaf,'  Prak.  hahira,  Pali  hadhim,  Ur. 
hahird,  Bang,  haherd,  Hindi  haJiird,  Sindhi  hOru,  hodo,  Guj.  hchcro, 
Mar.  haJiird,  Suhh.  hihiri.  Skt.  godhiima  '■  wheat,'  Apab.  Prak. 
gohumu,  Pali  godhiima,  Ass.  ghcmhu,  Naip.  gdhum,  Ur.  gahama, 
gama,  Bang,  gam,  gam,  Biharl  gdhum,  Hindi  go{m)hum,  gehum, 
gheiim,  Panj.  gliciim,  Sindhi  gchim,  Guj.  ghaiim,  Gyp.  giv.  Skt. 
vadhu '  bride,'  Prak.  vahu,  Pali  vadhti,  Ur.  hahu,  Bang,  hail,  Hindi 
ha{h)r(,  Panj.  lohil,  Sindlil  vahiJ,  huhu,  Guj.  vahu,  Mar.  vaJiil. 

Syncope  of  dh. 
§  274.     Tlie  loss  of  dh  occurs  only  rarely  in  the  Indo-Iranian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  godhiima  '  wheat,'  Ur.  gama,  gahama.  Bang. 
gom,  gam,  Hindi  gheum,  gehum,  gO{m)hum,  Panj.  ghcum,  Guj. 
ghailm,  Gyp.  gw,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vibti,  vibava  '  widow,'  Phi.  vcvaJc,  New 
Pers.  hcvah,  KaS.  via,  vTga,  hlva,  Kurd,  hi.  Tag.  Oss.  idaj.  Av. 
hnca  *  from '  +  alairi  '  beneath,'  Phi.  a^tJr,  Paz.  azcr.  New  Pers. 
^'cr,  Siv.  SI,  Zaf.  icr,  other  Central  dialects  jir,  Samn.  jer,  Trd. 
jiar,  Judaeo-Pers.  zcr,  Kurd,  z'lr,  Tag.  Oss.  dala. 


n  =  n. 
§  275.     Indo-Iranian  n  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  although  in  Middle  Indian 
an  original  ii  is  usually  cerebralized  to  n. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  93 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nmnan  'name,'  Prak.,  Pali  naman,  New 
Ind.  dialects  nam{v),  Gyp.  anew,  nav.  Skt.  namayati  'bows,' 
Prak.  namci,  Pali  nnmcti,  Ur.  numa'i,  Bang,  nam,  miya,  Hindi 
na{v),  Panj.  nivd,  Sindhi  nar'nvd.  Skt.  sndna  '  bath,'  Apab. 
Prak.  nlidnu,  Pali  sindna,  ndhdna,  Hindi  nhdnd,  Panj.  nhdund, 
Guj.  nahdn,  Mar.  nalidn,  ndhancm. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  nqnian  'name,'  Old  Pers.  ndman.  Phi., 
New  Pers.  ndm,  WaxI  nwig,  Afy.  num,  Bal.  :?2a;;?.  Dig.  Oss. 
non,  Tag.  wowi.  Av.  nairya  'virile,'  Phi.  nerok,  Paz.,  New 
Pers.  mro,  Siyn.  >^^r,  Sarq.  niar,  Sangl.  naraJc,  Yidg.  war.  Av. 
nava  '  new,'  Phi.  navaJc,  nok,  Paz.  wy.  New  Pers.  nu,  nav,  Siyn. 
wait,  Sarq.  nuj,  Afy.  waw,  navai,  Bal.  wc5^',  N.  Bal.  wo^,  Kurd. 
nu,  Dig.  Oss.  navag.  Tag.  wvor/.  Av.  ^V«'«i  '  woman,'  Plil.,  New 
Pers.  zan.  Gab.  Jaw,  yan{Uk),  Siv.  iiw,  Zaf.  iaw,  Kas.,  Kuhr.jaw, 
Jiw,  2/«w,  iaw.  Nay.  yanah,  Samn.  zanilio,  Siyn.  yin,  Sarq.  y^}^, 
iiw,  Minj.  zinga,  Afy.  jinat,  junai,  jal,  Bal.  Jaw,  Kurd,  iiw, 
Zaza  Jan. 

n  >  n. 

§  276.  Tlie  change  of  n  to  «  is  confined  to  the  Sindhi,  which 
alone  preserves  fd,  n,  pronounced  tdg  and  ni  respectively  (see 
§154). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  stana  '  female  breast,'  Pnik.,  Pali  thanttj 
Ur.,  Bang,  thana,  Hindi  than,  Panj.  than,  Sindhi  thah/t,  thanu, 
Guj.  thdn,  Mar.  thand.  Skt.  mdnand  '  respect,'  Hindi  manna, 
Sindhi  mahanu. 

n  >  n. 

§  277.  The  cerebralization  of  n  is  very  frequent  in  the  Middle 
Indian  dialects.  Vararuci,  ii.  42,  goes  so  far  as  to  postulate  a  change 
of  n  to  n  throughout  the  Prakrits  [no  nah  sarvatra,  cf  Pischel  on 
Hemacandra,  i.  229,  Gramm.  der  Fralirit-Sprachen,  §  224).  In  the 
New  Indian  dialects  the  change  is  less  common. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nadl  'river,'  Prak.  nai,  Pali  nadl.  New  Ind. 
dialects  nadl,  W.  Bang,  also  ladi.  Skt.  vacana  '  speech,'  Prak, 
vacana,  Mahar.  Prak.  vayana,  Pali  vacana.     Skt.  Jchanet '  should 


94  IXDO-IPANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

dig,'  Gatha  Jchanet     Skt.  dhcnn  '  cow/  Prak.  dhenu,  Pali  dhemi, 
Sindhi  dJiPnu, 

01  >  b. 

§  278.     Tlie  change  of  n  to  h  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  nagna  '  naked,'  Av.  mayna,  Oss.  haynag. 

n  >  m. 

§  279.  Tlie  change  of  n  to  7u  occurs  occasionally  finally  in 
Iranian. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.j)aUiddna  '  penom,'  Fhi.  j)adf2m,  Paz.^;a««;», 
2M}idm,  New  Pers.  pancim.  Phi.  han  'roof/  New  Pers.  Tjcin, 
ham,  Siv.  Jjcin,  Kas.  &m(w),  &oa^,  Tat  sarbu,  Afy.  &aw?,  Kurd.  6rtw. 
Av.  dfrlna  '  blessing/  Phi.  a/rln  *  praise/  nafnn  '  curse/  New 
Pers.  nafrln,  Kurd,  nafrlm. 

n  >  r. 

§  280.     The  change  of  n  to  r  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.      Skt.   nairahjana  nom.  prop.,   Pali   ncrahjara. 

Skt.    stJuma  'place,'  Prak.   tJulna,  thnna,  Apab.  Prak.  thdmi, 

thdu,  Pali  thdna,  Naip.  tham,  Ur.  thdnd,  thdnd,  Bang,  than, 

tliand,   Bihari   t]idu{m),    tJid{}U)v,    Hindi   thdnd,    thaiind,    Panj. 

thdnd,  thdnd,  Sindhi  thdnn,  iluuin,  Giij.  than,  than.  Mar.  thdr, 

than,  Simh.  tuna,  tana. 

n  >  I. 

§  281.  Tlie  change  of  n  to  I  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  and  in  Siriihaleso  the  change  is  regular.  In  the  Iranian 
dialects,  on  the  contrary,  the  development  is  very  rare, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  anas  '  fault,'  Pali  ela,  ela.  Skt.  nimha  '  sort 
of  tree,'  Prak.  limha,  Pfili  nimha,  Bihari  7iwi,  Hindi  llm,  mm, 
Sindhi  limu,  Guj.  limhadO,  Mar,  limh.  Skt.  navanlfa  '  butter,' 
Pali  navanita,  nunita,  Bang,  nam,  Hindi  ndnl,  Mar,  lOnl.  Skt., 
Prak.,  Pali  nila  '  blue,'  Kasm.  mjul.  Bang.,  Bihari  lU,  nil,  Guj. 
III.  Skt.  vana  'forest,'  Prak.  vana,  Prdi  vana,  Simh.  val,  Mala- 
dive  vali.     Skt.,  Prak.,  Prdi  nava  '  new,'  Simh.  la,  Gyp.  nevo. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  jaini  '  woman/  Afy.  jal,  jinal,  junai,  etc. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  95 

(see  §  275).     Skt.   navaJca  'youth,'   New   Pers.  navaJi,  Kurd. 
Iau{Jc),  lav,  Id. 

n  >  I 
§  282.     The  change  of  7i  to  I  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cnas  'faidt/  Pali  ela,  ela.  Skt.  vana  'forest,' 
Maladive  vail,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

n  >  V. 
§  283.     Tlie  change  of  n  to  v  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vacua  'nose/  Plil.  vcnJJc,  henJlc,  Paz.  vmi, 
New  Pers.  htm,  Samn.  vTm,  Maz.  vem,  Tal.  vim,  E.  Kurd,  haval, 
Kurd,  hivil,  hen. 

Syncope  of  n. 
§  284.     Tlie  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  n  is  rather  uncommon.     In 
the  Iranian  dialects  the  apocope  of  n  is  found  occasionally  after 
ong  vowels. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sthana  'place,'  Apab.  Prak.  thdii,  ilmnu, 
Biharl  iliau[m),  tha{m)v,  etc.  (see  §  280). 

b.  Iranian.  Plil.  varan  '  rain/  New  Pers.  hdrdn,  Zaf.  vnro, 
Kas.  vOrun,  Nay.  vdrmi,  Kurd.  Mrin,  Dig.  Oss.  vdrim,  Tag. 
varin.  Plil.,  Paz.,  New  Pers.  nan  '  bread,'  Zaf.  nil,  Nay.  tiou, 
Central  dialects  ntin,  Bal.  nagan,  N.  Bal.  nayan.  New  Pers. 
idhistdn  'summer,'  Siv.  tavisd.  New  Pers.  sd  'manner/  sdn. 
Phi.,  New  Pers.  imsin  '  hinder,'  Kurd.  pasl. 

ProtJiesis  of  n. 
§  285.     The  prothesis  of  n  is  an  excessively  rare  phenomenon. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  dimnah  'mirror,'  New  Pers.  dlnah,  Bal. 
cidenh,  [lijddcJc,  N.  Bal.  dclen,  dzlna,  Kurd,  nainal'.  Dig.  Oss. 
aidana. 

Epenthesis  of  n. 
§  286.     The  epenthesis  of  n  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hazawa  '  thousand,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  hazdr, 
Afy.  zar,  TiOZQ.  lianzdr. 


96  IXDO-IRAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

p=p. 

^  287.  Indo-Iranian  j)  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.|;asca^ 'afterward/ Prak.,  Pali  ^acc^a,  Ass. 
pice,  pace,  Kasm.  pat{h),  Ur.  pache,  pachu,  Bang,  pacha,  Hindi 
ptacM,  plche,  pachu,  pJchu,  Panj.  piche,  pichom,  Sindhi  pOe, 
puam,  Guj.  xjochc,  pach'i,  pacha,  Simh.  ^;as(«).  Skt.  palcva 
'■  ripe,'  Apab.  Prak.  paJcJca,  pilika,  Pali  pakka,  Ass.  jJakd,  Naip. 
2)dk,  Kasm.  ^wj?,  Ur.  pakka.  Bang,  pctka,  E.  Hindi  pdkal,  Hindi, 
Panj.  pakkd,  Sindhi  paho,  Guj.  Vpak,  pik.  Mar.  p'lli,  pikd.  Skt. 
Vchap  '  go '  (?),  Ur.  tipihd,  Bang,  chdpite,  cdpite,  tepite,  Hindi 
chcqjand,  campand,  topand,  topand,  tlpand,  thapand,  Sindhi 
chdpanu,  cdpanu,  tapudanu,  thapanu.  Mar.  chdpanem,  cdxmtor 
nem,  idp,  thapakd,  Anglo-Ind,  [first)  chop,  shampoo.  Skt.,  Pfdi 
japana  '  muttering,'  Hindi  ja{m)pand,  Mar.  jdpanem. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pasca  '  afterward,'  Old  Pers.  pasd{va).  Phi., 
New  Pers.  pas,  Ka§.  pac,  pas,  Bal.  pas,  Kurd,  pdsl,  pdsva,  Dig. 
Oss.  fastdga,  Tag.  fiistag.  Av.  paha  '•  foot,'  Phi.  pal.  New  Pers. 
pd{i),  Waxlj;w8,  ^\yn.  pah,  Sarq,  j?a5,  Sangl.  pud,  Mmj.  palah, 
Yidg.  pidluh,  Yayn.  puda,  Aiy.  pal,  Bal.  pad,  N.  Bal.  phdh, 
phdz,  Zaza  pai.  Av.  ap  '  water,'  Phi.  dp,  Paz.  ««(;,  New  Pers. 
dh,  dv,  Gab.  o,  Siv.  av,  an,  Yazdl  vo,  Ka§.  ov.  Nay.  ao,  Nat.  r/?<, 
Samn.  o,  Maz.  o(y),  Gil.,  Trd.,  Tat  ov,  WaxI  yn^^A-,  yapali,  Yidg. 
?/oyy,  Yayn.  oj;,  Afy.  oba,  Bal.  aj;,  N.  Bal.  df,  Kurd.  av. 

p  >  k. 

§  288.     Tlie  change  oi p  to  k  is  excessively  rare. 

a.    Indian.     Skt.  pipllika  'ant,'  Pali  kipillika,  pipllika  (by 
dissimilation). 

p  >ph,f. 

§  289.  In  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects  the  aspirization 
of  an  original  p>  is  usually  caused  by  a  following  aspirate  or  sibi- 
lant. In  the  Iranian  dialects^  becomes /(apart  from  the  regular 
laws  of  aspiration  in  Iranian)  in  Ossetish,  and  between  vowels,  or 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  97 

finally  after  vowels  in  North  BalQcI,  although  this  dialect  shows 
2)h  initially  before  vowels  and  r. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  imriglia  '  bar,'  Prak.  phaliJia.  Skt.  parusa 
'  rough,'  Pali  pliarusa.  Skt.  parihhadra  '  sort  of  tree,'  Prak. 
pMlihadda,  Pali  plialihhadda.  Skt.  puspa  '■  flower,'  Prak.,  Pali 
pujipha,  Biharl  phup{lb\  Old  Hindi  puliupa,  Hindi  |>/wj>,  Guj., 
Mar.  phul.  Skt.  xxisa  '  noose,'  Mahar.  Prak.,  Pali  pasa,  Naip. 
phamsoj  paso,  Ur.  phas^  Bang.,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  phams,  Panj. 
phdhd,  Sindihl  phdsl,  phahi,  Guj.,  Mar.  ^Aams. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pacaiti  'cooks,'  Phi.  pazH,  New  Pers. 
pamd,  Gab.  paxa,  Ka§.  patan,  Maz.  paxta,  Wax!  pocam,  Afy. 
paxavul,  Bal.  pacag,  N.  Bal.  phasay,  Kurd,  pdtin,  Bayazid 
pdthin,  Dig.  Oss.  Jicun,  Tag.  /cm.  Av.  pardna  'feather,'  Phi., 
New  Pers.  parr,  Afy.  j?«r,  Bal.  pan,  Kurd,  far,  pal,  par,  Zaza 
frin  '  to  fly.'  Skt.  ta2)as  '  heat,'  New  Pers.  tcth,  Gab.  #o,  Ka§. 
tav,  Afy.  ^a&a,  Bal.  tap,  N.  Bal.  thaph,  thaf,  thap,  Kurd.  ;fa(v), 
Tag.  Oss.  tliaf.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  ocsapan  '  night,'  Phi.  sap,  Iat7a^, 
New  Pers.  sah,  Samn.  so,  Maz.  su,  Tal.  sav.  Tat  siJ,  Siyn.  sa&, 
Sarq.  a;a6,  Minj.  xsava,  Afy.  Ipa,  Bal.  sap,  N.  Bal.  sa/  Kurd. 
saVj  Oss.  axsav. 

p  >  h. 

§  290.  Tlie  change  of  the  tenuis  p  to  the  media  h  is  more 
common  in  the  Iranian  than  in  the  Indian  dialects,  where  jf) 
normally  becomes  v. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Ii2n  'tablet,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Delhi) 
lihi,  Pali  lipi.  Skt.  ndpita  '  barber,'  Prak.  nhdvia,  ndvia, 
Sakara  Prak.  ncihida.  Skt.  hapdta  'door,'  Prak.  apdta,  Ur., 
Bang.  Jiahdda,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Mar.  lavdd.  Skt.  api  'also,'  Prak. 
2n,  avi,  Pali  {a)2)i,  Sindhi  bi.  Skt.  sthdpayati  '  establishes,' 
Prak.  thdvei,  Pali  thd2)eti,  Ur.  thuihd,  Bang,  thaite,  Hindi,  Panj. 
tliapand,  Guj.  tlidptavim.  Mar.  thCqiancm,  Simh.  tabanavd.  Skt. 
parasvant  'rhinoceros,'  Pali  balasata. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  kapota  '  dove,'  Phi.  kap6t[ar).  New  Pers. 
Jcabutar,  Waxi  A'i&i^,  Sarq.  cabaud,  Yidg.  ^-wvw,  Afy.  lautar, 

H 


98  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

lavntar,  Bal.  lapot,  Jcqfar,  Kurd.  JcavoJc.  Av,  xscqmn  '  night,' 
New  Pors.,  §iyn,  sah,  Sarq.  xr/&,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Av.  uj) 
*  water/  New  Pers.  ah,  dv,  Afy.  oba,  etc.  (see  §  287).  Skt. 
lojMsa  'fox,'  Phi.  »"0j?cl5,  r(>&«7S,  New  Pers.  robdli,  Gab.  nZvos, 
Sarq.   roj^c,   Bal.   rophasJc,   Kurd,   rwfi,  Dig.  Oss.  rohas,  Tag. 

^;  >  m. 

§  291.  The  change  of  jj  to  m  is  very  rare  outside  the  Middle 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nipa  '  Kadamba  tree/  Prak.  ?iima,  nwa,  Pali 
m2)a.  Skt.  djnda  '  chaplet/  Prak.  dmela,  dveda.  Skt.  punah 
'again,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Delhi),  mina,  (inscriptions  of 
Shahbazgarhi)  ])ana,  lit.  Prak.  puna,  Pali  pana,  Biliarl  jjJuHj 
p{h)un.  Skt.  svapant  'sleeping,'  Pali  sumanta,  but  SKjKiti 
'sleeps.'  Skt.,  Pali  liacchapa  'tortoise/  Bang.  kacJiim,  Hindi, 
Panj.  IcacJmd,  Sindhi  I'amcJm.  Skt.  sapddil:a  'one  and  one 
fourth,'  Prak.  savaia,  Ur.  saiiydi,  Bang,  saiii/d,  Hindi  savd, 
W.  Hindi  sa77id,  Panj.  savd{id),  Sindhi  savdt,  Guj  savd,  Mar. 
sawd. 

p>y. 

§  292.  The  change  of  p  to  y,  which  is,  as  in  all  similar  phe- 
nomena, only  apparent  (cf.  §§  122,  137,  143,  183,  229,  242,  256, 
270),  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Ski,  Pali j;i/?a5a 'thirst/ Hindi ^/2/a5,^;ia5,^;?/«5. 

p  >  V. 

§  293.  Tlic  change  of  ^?  to  v  is  the  most  frequent  one  of  all 
those  to  which  Indo-Iranian  2^  is  subject,  both  in  the  Indian  and  in 
the  Iranian  dialects.  It  is  closely  akin  to  the  changes  of  j;  to  b 
and  ofhiov  noted  in  §§  290,  308. 

a.  Indian.  Skt, /iy/;^^^  '  skull/ Prfik.,  Pilli  Zv/mla.  Bktpdpa 
'  evil,'  Prak.  2)dva,  Pali  2^"2M,  'Kasm. 2)d2)h,  Siihh.  2Hivii,  other  New 
Ind.  dialects  pap.     Skt.  upadhydya  '  teacher/  Prak.  %wajjhaa. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  99 

ujjJiaa,  Pali  upajjlidya,  Biharl  jmdha,  Sindhi  vctjhd.     Skt.  Jcapaia 
'door/  Hindi,  Panj.,  Mar.  Jcavad,  etc.  (see  §  290). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  upairi  '■  above,'  Old  Pers.  upariy^  Phi.  o/par^ 
Paz.  awar,  New  Pers.  {a)bar,  WaxI,  Sarq.  var,  Afy.  xwe,  Bal. 
par^  N.  Bal.  pliar^  gvar,  Kurd,  har,  Oss.  vala.  Phi.  la})  'lip/ 
Paz.  law,  New  Pers.  Za&,  Gab.  lav,  Bahb.  lati,  Zaf.  l6,  Ka§.  Zav, 
Von.  Zo2,  Nay.  Ihjil,  WaxT,  Sangl.  lav,  Bal.  hq^,  Kurd.  Ziv.  Av. 
ap  '  water,'  New  Pers.  av,  ah,  Siv.  av,  au,  Kas.  ov,  Maz.  ov,  o, 
Gil.,  Tal.,  Tat  ov,  Yidg.  ^JOVy,  Kurd,  ov,  etc.  (see  §  287).  Av. 
xsapan  *■  night,'  Phi.  savaJi,  sap,  Tal.  sav.  Minj  ccsava,  Kurd,  sav, 
Oss.  axsav,  etc.  (see  §  289).  Skt.  lopasa  '■  fox,'  Gab.  ruvds,  Kurd. 
rUvi,  etc.  (see  §  290).  Skt.  Mpihjala  *  partridge,'  Bal.  /.  apmjar, 
N.  Bal.  JiJiatvinjar. 

Syncope  of  p. 

§  294.  The  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  p)  through  the  transition-grades 
h  and  v  (cf.  §§  290,  293,  309,  376)  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dryaputra  ^father-in-law's  son,'  Prak.  ajjautta. 
Skt.  Mpa  'well,'  Naip.  Jciivd,  Kasm.  UmJi,  Ur.,  Bang.  7cm, 
Biharl,  Hindi,  Panj.  'kii{m)dm,  Sindhi  JiJtilJm,  Guj.,  Mar.  ktwO. 
Skt.  lapittha  'wood-apple  tree,'  Ur.  Jmifa,  Hindi  liathahcl  (with 
metathesis). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  cip  '  water,'  Gab.  o,  Nay.  do,  Samn.  o,  Maz. 
6,  ov,  etc.  (see  §  287).  Skt.  tapas  '  heat,'  Gab.  to,  Kurd,  td,  tdv, 
etc.  (see  §  289). 

ph  —  pJi. 

§  295.  Indo-Iranian  pli  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged 
both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prdi  j>/i«wa  'snake's  hood,*  Ur.,  Bang., 
Hindi  phand,  Sindhi  phani,  Guj.  phand.  Mar.  j)liand. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Icafa  'foam,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  leaf,  Waxi 
xnf,  Sarq.  xaf,  Bal.  l:ap,  Kurd,  Imf,  Dig.  Oss.  xafa,  Tag.  xaf. 
Av.  safa  '  hoof,'  Afy.  sva,  Oss.  safthag. 

H  2 


100  INDO-IRANIAy  PHONOLOGY 

ph  >  p. 

§  296.  The  deaspirization  of  Indo-Iranian  ph  is  excessively 
rare  in  the  Indo-Iranian  dialects,  excepting  in  BalucT,  where  inter- 
vocalic ph  regularly  becomes  p,  which  North  BalucI  has  developed 
to/ 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  phadmga  '  flying  insect,'  Pali  paiatoga.  Skt. 
phalgu  'herb,'  Pali  *phalgava  > paggava. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kaofa  '  mountain,'  Old  Pers.  Jcaufa,  Phi. 
Txdf{ak\  New  Pers.  hdh,  Kuhr.  kiifun,  Tat  hif,  Aly.  kvah,  Bal. 
hopagy  N.  Bal.  hlfay,  Kurd.  hulh.  Av.  kafa  '  foam/  Bal.  kap, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

ph  >  h. 

§  297.     The  change  oi ph  to  h  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kaofa  '  mountain,'  Afy.  kvah,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

ph  >  hh. 

§  298.  Tlie  change  oi ph  to  bh  is  found  not  infrequently  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  npha  'burring  sound,'  Prak.  rebha.  Skt. 
saphala  'fruitful,'  Prak.  sahhala^  Apab.  Prak.  sahalu,  Pali 
saphala.  Skt.  saphari  'carp,'  Prak.  sahhari,  sahari,  Pali  sa- 
phari,  Hindi  saharl,  Panj.  saiil. 

ph  >  V. 

§  299.     The  change  of  ^7i  to  v  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kaofa  '  mountain,'  Km-d.  kiah,  but  kovl '  wild,' 
etc.  (see  §  296).     Av.  safa  '  hoof,'  Afy.  sva,  etc.  (see  §  295). 

2)h  >  h. 

§  300.     The  cliangc  of  2)h  to  h  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  saphari  'carp,'  Prak.  sahari,  sahhari,  Hindi 
saharl,  etc.  (see  §  298). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kaofa  '  mountain,'  New  Pers.  kOh,  etc.  (see 
§  296j. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  101 

Syncope  of  ph. 
§  301.     Tlie  loss  of  Intlo-Iranian  ^;/i  is  a  very  rare  phenomenon. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  saphari  '  carp,'  Panj.  saill,  etc.  (see  §  298). 

Epentliesis  of  pJi,  f. 
§  302.     The  epenthesis  oi  ph,f  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  tasa  '  axe/  New  Pers.  tas,  Kurd,  tafsciu. 


b  =  h. 
§  303.    Indo-Iranian  h  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hadhnati  '  binds,'  Prak.  hamdJiai,  Pali  ham- 
dJiati,  Hindi  hamdh,  Panj.  bannh,  Sindhi  hdmdh.  Skt.  hiidhyate 
^  knows,'  Prak.  hujjJiai,  Pali  bujjhati,  Kasm.  samjhaadi,  bujhiha, 
Ur.,  Bang,  hujhana,  Hindi  hiijhana,  Panj.  hujjhand,  Sindhi 
htjhanu,  Guj.  bujavum,  Mar.  bujh.  Skt.  sabara  'barbarian,' 
Prak.  sabara,  samara. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  baxsaiti  '  divides,'  Plil.  baxtano,  Paz.,  New 

Pers.  baxsJdan,  Afy.  basal,  baxal,  Bal.  baJisar/,  N.  Bal.  basMy, 

Kurd,  baxsin.     Av.  bdrds '  high,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  burs,  Kurd. 

bars,  Oss.  barsond. 

b  >  p. 

§  304.    The  change  of  the  &  to  j?  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  bcidha  '  firm,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Klialsi 

and  Dhaidi)  padha,  Mahar.  Prak.  bddha.     Skt.  balvaja  '  reed,' 

Pali  pabbaja. 

b  >  bh. 

§  305.     The  aspirization  of  Indo-Iranian  b  is  very  rare. 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  brhaspati  nom.  prop.,  Prak.  bhaaphadi. 

b  >  m. 

§  306.     The  change  of  b  to  m  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  Skt.  brilhi 
'  speak ! '  Av.  mruiU). 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  sabara  'barbarian,'  Prilk.  samara,  sabara. 
Skt.  Jcabandha  '  belly,  cloud,'  Prak.  kamamdha,  Tiayaindlia. 


102  IXDO-IRAXIAX  PHONOLOGY 

h  >y. 

§  307.     TIiG  change  of  h  to  //,  which  is  only  an  apparent  one  (cf. 

§,^  122,  137,  143,  183,  229,  242,  256,  270,  292),  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  I'ahandha  'belly,  cloud,'  Prak.  hayamdha, 

kamamdha. 

h  >  V. 

§  308.  The  change  of  &  to  v  is  very  common,  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  The  Prakrits  have  so  far  con- 
fused 6  and  v  that  Vararuci  writes  v  for  h  throughout.  Tlie  New 
Indian  dialects  use  v  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  h  in  the  East, 
Hindi  reverses  this,  writing  every  v  as  &,  Panjabi  uses  h  and  v 
indifferently,  while  the  Western  dialects  preserve  the  original 
distinction  between  the  two  more  carefully. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hdspa  'vapor,'  Prak.  Mlia  'tear,'  happlia 
'  smoke,'  oaiu'.  Prak.  happa,  Pali  happa,  Kasm.  hdha,  Ur.,  Bang. 
hapha,  hhdplia,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  hd{m]ph,  Panj.  Ijhdph,  Sindhi 
haph,  Guj.  hu{m)ph,  Mar.  vdpli.  Skt.  handhyd  '  barren  woman,' 
Prak.,  Pali  vamjjhd,  Bang.  hdmjJid,  Sindhi  vdmjh,  Marvarl 
hamjhadl,  Guj.  vnrnjham,  Mar.  vtlnijh. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  bu2a  '  goat,'  Phi.  huj,  New  Pers.  ht(z,  WaxI 
hue,  hiic,  Siyn.,  Sarq.  va;s,  Sangl.  vuz,  Minj.  voza,  Yidg.  vim,  Afy. 
viis,  Kurd,  hizln.  Old  Pers.  naiha  '  beautiful,'  Phi.  ncval;  nev, 
New  Pers.  nev,  mh. 

Syncope  of  h. 

§  309.     The  syncope  of  an  intervocalic  h  is  very  rare  in  the 
Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  pibati  '  drinks,'  Prak.  piai,  Pali  pihati,  Siihh. 
honavd,  caus.  povanavd. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers,  naiha  'beautiful,'  Plil.  ncvaJc,  nev, 
New  Pers.  nek,  nev. 

Epenthesis  of  h. 
§  310.     The  epenthesis  of  6  is  quite  rare.     It  seems  to  occur 
mostly  in  the  vicinity  of  m. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  staxra  '  stiff,'  Plil.  stahnhaktar,  stahmaktar, 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  103 

New  Pers.  sifam.  Av.  duma  '  tail,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  dum,  dumb, 
Sarq.  bum,  hiimbd,  Afy.  lam,  Kurd,  duv,  dunk.  Dig.  Oss.  dumag, 
Tag.  dimag.  Skt.  roman  '  hair  of  the  body,'  New  Pers.  rum, 
rumali,  rumhah. 

hh  =  Wi. 

§  311.  In  the  Indian  dialects  Indo-Iranian  hh  is  in  general 
retained  unchanged.  The  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  other  hand, 
change  hh  to  h,  which,  however,  in  the  younger  Avesta  became  iv, 
excepting  when  h  was  preceded  by  a  written  nasal  or  sibilant,  or 
when  h  was  initial. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pratibhati  'glory,'  Prak.  padibhati.  Skt., 
Prak.,  Pali  hhumi  'earth,'  Ur.  bhiima,  hhurim.  Bang,  bhtim, 
Hindi  hhtm,  bhiiim,  bhfirim,  Panj.  bhmi,  bhiim,  hhurim,  bhorim, 
Sindhi  hhu{im),  Guj.  bhu{ij),  hhoy,  Mar.  bhuy,  Gyp.  phuv. 

bh  >  Jch,  X. 
§  312.     The  change  of  bh  to  Tih,  x,  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  ahha  '  glory '  +  tapa  '  heat,'  New  Pers.  aftab 

'sun,'   Siyn.,   Sarq.   aftau,  Kurd,   ataf,  So  axtav,  ataf,  adav, 

BoxtanI  tdv. 

bh  >ph,f. 

§  313.     The  change  of  bh  to  ph,  f,  is  found  occasionally  in  the 

Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  aiwirocayeiti  '  kindles,'  Phi.  afroxtano,  New 

Pers.  afroxtan.     Skt.  abhi  +  sdna  'whetstone,'  Phi.  afsdn,  New 

Pers.  afsdn,  avsdn,  fasdn,  Waxi,  Sarq.  pasdn.     Skt.  urnavdhhi 

'  spinning-wheel,'  New  Pers.  hdftan,  Gab.  vaftmiln,  Waxi  viifam, 

Sarq.  vdfam,  Afy.  odal,  udal,  Bal.  gvapag,  N.  Bal.  gvafay,  Oss. 

vafin. 

hh  >  h. 

§  314.  The  deaspirization  of  Indo-Iranian  hh  is  by  no  means 
common. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  bhaginl  'sister,'  Prak.  bha'im,  bahim,  Pali 
bhagim,  ICasm.  hyah,  Ur.  hlidum,  hhoAim,  Bang,   bain,  Hindi 


104  JXDO-inAXIAX  nrONOLOGY 

hahin,  Panj.  hhdhi,  hdinli,  Sindlil  hMnu,  Guj,  hchen,  Mar.  iahln, 

Gyp.  2^J(fn. 

hh  >  m, 

§  315.     The  change  of  hh  to  m  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  dmiduhhi  '  drum/  Pali  dindima. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  hliar^gd  'bhang,  hemp,'  Av.  hanJia,  Phi., 
New  Pers.  mang,  bang.  Skt.  ndhhi  '  navel,'  Av.  nafah,  Phi. 
nafiaJc),  Afy.  nu,  num,  Bal.  napag,  ndfag,  N.  Bal.  nafay,  Kurd. 

?>/i  >  mh. 

§  316.     The  change  of  hh  to  m/i  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  hhanati  '  speaks,'  Prak.  hhana'i,  Pali  hhanati, 

Mar.  mhananemi. 

hh  >  V. 

§  317.     The  change  of  hh  to  v  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  nahhas  '  cloud,'  Yidg.  nuvuh. 

hh  >  h. 

§  318.  The  change  of  hh  to  h  is  the  most  common  of  all  the 
changes  to  which  Indo-Iranian  hh  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects, 
but  hh  does  not  become  h  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hhCinda  '  pot,'  Pali  hhanda,  Ur.,  Bang,  hdmdi, 
Bihari  hdriid,  hhdmd,  Hindi,  Panj.  hdnuil,  Sindhi  hanidl,  Guj. 
hdthdl,  Mar.  Iwbmll,  Skt.  lahhati  *  takes,'  Prak.  laha'i,  Pali 
lahhati,  Ur.  ne,  Bang,  lad,  Old  Hindi  laha,  Hindi  le,  Panj.  lahi, 
Jdi,  Sindhi  lah,  Guj.  Id,  Mar.  ne.  Skt.  hhavati  *  becomes,'  Prak. 
huvai,  hhavai,  Pais.  Prak.  &Ao^i,  Saur.  hddi,  huvadi,  havadi, 
hhodi,  hhuvadi,  hhavadi,  Pali  hoti,  hhavati,  Ur.  hoihd,  hchd.  Bang. 
/jcii^5,  Hindi  hand,  Panj.  /itiwa,  Sindhi  huanu,  Guj.  liOvum,  Mar. 

§  319.  Indo-Iranian  m  is  in  general  retained  michanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  madluja  '  middle,'  Prak.,  Pali  majjha,  Ass. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  105 

maj,  Kasm.  mams,Vr.  majhi,  'Ba,ng.mdjli,l{indimajJii,  mamjhdla, 
Panj.  mamjh,  majjh,  Sindhi  mamjim,  Mar.  mdjh,  Siihh.  mti{ni)da. 
Skt.  mrta  'dead,'  Prak.  maa,  nma,  Mag.  Prak.  made,  Ur. 
mala,  Hindi  mud,  Panj.  miiid,  Sindhi  mno,  Guj.  muvnm,  Mar. 
melem,  Simh.  mala.  Skt.  Jcsamd  'patience/  Prak.  JcJiamd 
'  patience,'  cliamd  '  earth,'  Pali  hhamd,  Hindi  chiind,  Panj., 
Sindhi  JcJiimd,  Guj.  hhamd,  Mar.  lihamanem.  Skt.  grama 
'  village,'  Prak.,  Pali  gdma,  Ur.,  Bang,  ^aw,  Hindi  (jfamw,  Sindhi 
gdmu,  gdil,  Guj.  ^a?w.  Mar.  ^a*wv. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  maihyana  '  middle,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  miydn 
Waxi  malting,  Siyn.  mahdna,  Sarq.  mahdn,  Afy,  ■^»a?^J,  Dig 
Oss.  medag,  Tag.  mudag.  Av.  mdrdta  'dead,'  Phi.  ^i^ar^  'mortal. 
New  Pers.  mard,  Bal.  ?uar,  Kurd,  wr/n  Av.  ^iwio  '  of  winter, 
Phi.,  New  Pers.  zani,  WaxI  sam,  Siyn.  zimj,  zinj,  Sarq,  zamdn 
Afy.  zimai,  Dig.  Oss.  Bumag,  Tag.  zimag.  Av.  nqman  '  name. 
Old  Pers.  ndman,  Phi.,  New  Pers.  waw,  Maz.  w^7;>^,  Gil.  worn. 
WaxI  www//,  Afy.  ww>w,  Bal.  nam.  Dig.  Oss.  wow,  plur.  namtJdha 
Tag.  7^ow.  Phi.  ydmaJc,  jdmaJc  '  robe,'  New  Pers.  jdmah,  So 
Kurd.  yuma. 

m  >  n. 

§  320.     The  change  of  7n  to  ?*  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  nqman  'name,'  Dig.  Oss.  non,  but  plur. 
namththa,  etc,  (see  preceding  §), 

on  >  tdg. 

§  321,     The  change  of  m  to  i9g  occurs  but  seldom. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  nqman  '  name,'  WaxI  nung,  etc.  (see  §  319). 
Skt.  dma  '  raw,'  New  Pers.  xdm,  WaxI  yilng,  Afy.  om,  um,  Bal. 
Jidmag,  N.  Bal.  Jidmay,  Kurd.  ccdv. 

m  >  J)li,f. 

§  322.     The  change  of  m  to  ph,  f,  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  daman  '  bond,'  New  Pers.  dam,  Afy.  lum, 
Kurd.  daf. 


106  INDOIRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

m  >  &. 
§  323.     The  change  of  m  to  h  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  maliisa  'buffalo,'  Pali  mahimsa,  Kasm. 
mums,  Ur.  bhayesa,  Bang.  Wiaims,  Bihari  mhais,  dJidinis,  maliis, 
hahis,  Hindi  bJidims,  mlidims,  Panj.  majh,  Sindhl  mathjJi,  mdmJii, 
Guj.  hhcms,  hhdims,  bhdimh,  Mar.  Widinis,  mhdis.  Skt.,  Pali 
manorama  '  delightful,'  Old  Siiiih.  manumaraka  '  grandson ' 
<  ^manurama-ka,  Simh.  munuburu  {m  >hhy  dissimilation), 

m  >  V. 
§  324.     In  the  New  Indian  dialects  the  change  of  m  to  v  is 
a  very  frequent  one.     It  is  more  rare  in  the  Middle  Indian,  while 
only  a  few  instances  are  quotable  from  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  manmatha  '  love,'  Prak.  vammaha,  Saur. 
Prak.  mammadha.  Skt.  abhimanyu  nom.  prop.,  Prak.  aJiivannu, 
aJiinidnnu.  Skt.  ydniala  '  pair,'  Jaina  Prak.  ydvara,  Pali  yamala. 
Skt.  mtmdnis  'investigating,' Pali  vJvdnis.  Skt.  dmalaka  'myro- 
balan,'  Prak.  dmalaa,  Pali  dmalaka,  Ur.  dmald.  Bang,  dold,  didd, 
Hindi,  Panj.  dmvald,  Sindhl  dmviro,  Mar.  dmvald.  Skt.  syd- 
mala  'swarthy,'  Pali  sdmala,  E.  Hindi  sdmvar,  Hindi  sdmvald, 
W.  Hindi  sdmvrau,  Panj.  sdnivald,  Sindhl  sdmvalu,  sdmviru, 
Mar.  sdmvald.  Skt.  gosvdniika  'monk,'  Bihari  gdsdmt.  Mar. 
gosdvi,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  gosdtm,  Anglo-Ind.  gosain. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  daenian  '  face,'  Phi.  andemdnkar,  Paz.  andt- 
mdni,  New  Pers.  dim,  Siv.,  Zaf.,  Kas.  dim,  Kuhr.  dim,  dim, 
Afy.  lema,  Bal.  dem,  N.  Bal.  d^v,  dCv,  Kurd.  dem.  Av.  pairi 
'  aroimd '  +  vazaiti  '  flies,'  New  Pers.  parmdz  '  flight '  beside 
parvdz.  New  Pers.  xmrvdnah  'butterfly'  beside  parmdnah. 
Av.  fidmah  'homage,'  Phi.  namdc,  Paz.,  New  Pers.  namdz,  Afy. 
nmunj,  Bal.  navds,  namds,  Kurd,  nwez,  nvez,  nmez.  Av.  naema 
'half,'  Phi.  nem{ak),  Paz.,  New  Pers.  mm,  Afy.  mmaij  Bal. 
nemag,  Kurd.  nw. 

m  >  s. 

§  325.     The  change  of  m  to  s  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   hhramara  'bee,'   Prak.   hhasala,    hhasara, 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  107 

hhasana,  hhamara,  Apab.  Prak.  hhasahn,  Jaina  Prak.  Wiasara, 
Pali  hhamara,  Ur.  hliamara,  Bang,  hhamara,  Biharl  hhaumrd, 
Hindi  hhamvar,  hhdmiir,  Panj.  hhamiir,  Sindhi  hhmmiru,  Mar. 
hhomr.     [So  Hemacandra  falsely  (see  Pischel,  §  251).] 

m  >  m. 

§  326.  The  change  of  m  to  m  is  not  infrequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prak,,  Pali  naman  '  name/  Hindi  ndmv,  Panj, 
ndilm,  Sindhi  nammh,  Mar,  ndv,  Gyp,  anfw,  nav.  Skt.,  Prak, 
hhunii  '  earth/  Pali  hhilmi,  hhimimi,  Ur,  hhtmia,  hhuim,  Bang. 
hhtim,  Hindi  hhum,  hJiutm,  hhimi,  Panj.  bhilm,  hhiilm,  hhoim, 
hhiim,  Sindhi  hhiiim,  hhil,  Guj.  hhii,  hhuy,  hhOij,  Mar,  hhfty,  Sirhh. 
hima.  Skt,,  Prak.,  Pali  roman  'hair  of  the  body,'  Bang,  romd, 
Biharl  rodm,  rovam,  Hindi,  Panj.,  rdrnhj  Sindhi  Im'n.  Skt. 
gosvdmika  '  monk,'  New  Ind.  dialects  gosdmi,  etc.  (see  §  324). 
Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  dhuma  '  smoke,'  Ass.  dhothd,  Naip.  dhtidm, 
Kasm.  duh,  Bang,  dhwydm,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  dhumdm, 
dhiidm,  Smdhi  dimihdm,  Guj.,  Mar.  dhum,  Siihh.  dimi. 

m  >  mv. 

§  327.  The  change  of  m  to  niv  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ndman  'name/  Hindi  ndmv,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §).  Skt.  Jcumdra  'prince,'  Prak.  Jcumara,  Mag.  Prak. 
Jcumdle,  Pali  hmndraha,  Biharl  Jcmhar,  huar,  kuvar,  Hindi  kum- 
var,  Panj.  kamvar,  Mar.  kumvar. 

Syncope  of  m. 

§  328.  The  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  m  is  very  frequent  in  the  New 
Indian  dialects,  although  in  Middle  Indian  m  is  lost  only  when 
final.  In  the  Iranian  dialects  the  phenomenon  is  found  but 
rarely. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  katham  'how,'  Prak.  kaJia,  kaham.     Skt. 

iddnlm  'now/  Prak.  ddni,  ddnim,  Shahbazgarhi   inscriptions 


108  lyno-iRANiAN  phonology 

hidalohika  temporal.'  Skt.,Pali  nemi  ' circumference,' Ur.  9? m, 
Bang,  nco,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  nev,  Panj.  nium,  Guj,  nev.  Skt. 
ccimara  '  ox-tail  fan/  Prak.  camara,  Pali  camara,  Ur.  camara, 
Bang,  cdumr,  camara,  Hindi  cciurl,  cdmhrl,  Panj.  cdur,  Sindhi 
cdiiru,  Guj.  cduri,  Mar.  ca«<n,  cdumn,  cdniar,  Anglo-Ind.  cliowry. 
Skt.  dhuma  'smoke/  Naip.  dliudni,  Hindi,  Panj.  dhUdm,  dim- 
mam,  etc.  (see  §  326).  Skt.  vdniana  'dwarf,'  Prak.,  Pali  vdmana, 
Bang,  bduniyd,  Hindi  hand,  hdund,  Panj.  hdund. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  gg,dumava,  name  of  a  place.  Phi.,  Paz. 
ganfum  '  garlic,'  New  Pers.  gandiim.  Nay.  gundo,  WaxI  yidun, 
Siyn.  sindani,  Sarq.  sandam,  zandum,  Sangl.,  Minj.  yandam, 
Yidg.  yadiim,  Afy.  yanum,  Bal.  gandlm.  Old  Pers.  avihanam 
'  I  dug,'   New  Pers.    Jcanam,  Gab.   alcana,   aJcane,   but   1   pi. 

Epenthesis  of  m,  m. 

§  329.      In  the  Indian  dialects  epenthesis  of  m,  w,  is  very 
frequent.     It  is  far  less  common  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  yat  prahhrti  '  since,'  Jaina  Prak.  jappdbliiim, 
cf.  Mahar.  Prak.  tappaljliiim.  Skt.  mahlsa  '  buffalo,'  Pali  ma- 
himsa,  Kasm.  mums.  Bang.  hJiaims,  Bihari  hhdims,  mlidis, 
mahis,  hahis,  Hindi  hhdims,  mhdims,  Sindhi  mamjh,  mdmlii, 
Guj.  hhems,  hhaims,  hhdimh,  Mar,  hhdims,  mhdis,  etc.  (see  §  323). 
Skt.  Tiupa  'well,'  Naip.  huvd,  Kasm.  hhuh,  Ur.,  Bang,  hud, 
Bihari,  Hindi,  Panj.  kuthdm,  hudm,  Sindlil  kJiuhu,  Guj.,  Mar. 
Jcuvo.  Skt.  chdyd  'shadow,'  Prak.  chdhl,  chdyd  'beauty,'  Pali 
chdyd,  Ur.  chdhina,  Bihari  chdmh,  Hindi  chdm,  chamv,  chdmh, 
chdom,  Panj.  chdm,  chdum,  Sindhi  chdm{v),  Guj.  chdmy.  Skt. 
nahhas  'cloud,'  Prak.  naha,  Pali  nahha,  Siriih.  nuniha,  nuha. 
Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  lajjd  '  modesty,'  Ur.,  Old  Bang.,  Hindi  lajjd, 
laj,  Panj.  lajj,  Sindhi  laj,  Guj.,  Mar.  lajjd,  Idj,  Siiiili.  lamda, 
lada. 

b.  Iranian.  ^V.i.prddhu  ^leo-pard,' "New  Fevs.  jJalang,  2)il<ing, 
Afy.  prdng.  Av.  nomah  '  homage,'  Afy.  nmunj,  etc.  (see  §  324). 
Lat.  vespa  '  wasp,'  Lith.  vapsa,  Bal.  gvamz,  gvahz.     New  Pers. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  109 

2)0^  '  part  about  the  nose,'  Gab.  pu^,  Sangl.  fuzih,  Minj.  fosJca, 
Afy.  posa,  paza,  Bal.  ponz^  poz,  N.  Bal.  phonz,  phoz,  Kurd.  ])uz, 
poz^  Dig.  Oss.  finja,  Tag.  jing.  Phi.  JmJ^ano  '  to  hide,'  3  s. 
pres.  humhet,  New  Pers.  nihuftan,  nihunbtdan,  Kurd,  nixiftin. 

§  330.  Indo-Iranian  y  remains  in  general  unchanged  in  the 
Iranian  dialects,  especially  in  the  Persian  dialects.  In  the  Indian 
dialects,  on  the  other  hand,  the  preservation  of  an  initial  y  is 
excessively  rare,  although  it  is  usually  retained  internally. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  yaWiati  'futuit,'  Sindhl  yahhanu.  Skt., 
Prak.,  Pali  dayalu  '  merciful,'  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  daydl{u), 
Sindhl  dayalu,  Guj.,  Mar.  dayal{u).  Skt.  Jirdaya  '  heart,'  Prak. 
Jiia{y)a,  Pais.  Prak.  hitaaJca,  Pali  hadaya,  Ass.,  Ur.,  Biharl  hia, 
Hindi  hiya,  Panj.  hiydth,  Jiidum,  Sindhl  himdmu,  Mar.  hiyyct, 
hiyem,  Gyp.  {y)ilo. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  yasJca  '  disease,'  Phi.  yasic,  New  Pers.  jash 
Skt.  yitga  'yoke,'  New  Pers.  juy,  Kuhr.  yu,  Siyn.  yiiy,  Sarq. 
yuy,  Bal.  joy,  Kurd.  jiJh  Av.  yava  '  barley,'  Phi.  yav,  jav,  New 
Pers.  jav,  Siv.  yu,  Zaf.  yah,  Ka§.  ya,  Kuhr.  yah,  Siyn.  yavaj, 
Sarq.  yaugj,  Yayn.  7jaii,  Bal.  jo,  jav,  N.  Bal.,  Kurd,  jau,  MukrI 
yo,  Oss.  yau.  Av.  ydna  '  path,'  New  Pers.  ydn,  Afy.  ?/ww.  Av. 
asaya  '  shadowless,'  Phi.  sdyaJc  '■  shadow,'  New  Pers.  sdyah,  Bal. 
sdig,  N.  Bal.  sal,  Kurd.  s*.  Av.  zayata  'was  bom,'  Phi.  -s-o- 
yawcZ,  New  Pers.  zayad,  Afy.  ^eii,  Bal.  zayag,  N.  Bal.  ^ay,  Kurd. 
2din,  Oss.  ^a?/i. 

§  331.  In  the  Indian  dialects  original  y  regularly  becomes  j. 
Uriya  and  Bangall  pronoimce  every  y  as  j,  and  the  same  practice 
is  observed  in  most  instances  by  Hindi  and  Panjabl.  The  West 
Indian  dialects,  the  Sindhl,  GujaratI,  and  Marathi,  on  the  other 
hand,  retain  the  Old  Indian  value  of  y  (cf.  also  §  308).  The  change 
of  2/  to  y  is  less  common  in  the  Iranian  dialects,  although  New 
Persian,  Afyan,  BalucI,  and  Kurdish  show  frequent  examples 
of  it. 


110  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  ya  '■  who/  Prak.  ja,  Pali  ya,  Ur.,  Bang.  Je, 
Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi  jo,  Guj.  je,  Mar.  Jo.  Skt.  yogya  '  worthy,' 
Prak.  jogga,  Pali  yogga,  New  Ind.  dialects  jo<7,  Mar.  also  yo^. 
Skt.   yduvana   '  youth,'   Prak.  jovvana,    Pali  yohhana,  Sindhi 

johhanu.  Skt.  yantragrha  '  bath-room,'  Pali  jantdgJiara,  jantag- 
gJia.  Skt.  ?/a^/ia  '  how,'  Prak.  jaha,  Pali  jatJid,  Gatha  jaJid,  Ur. 
Jef/ia,  Bang,  jekhdne,  Hindi  jahdni,  Panj.  jitthe,  Sindhi  jiti, 
Guj.  jdmhdm,  Mar.  jetJmh,  jitJie.  Skt.,  Pali  ?/a«a  '  vehicle,'  Ur. 
Ji&a,  Bang,  jdite,  Hindi  jdnd,  Panj.  jawa,   Guj.  javuni,  Mar. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  yuviyd  'canal,' Phi.  yoi,jdi,  New  Pers. 
joi,  Afy.  jova.     Av.  ?/i<:rfa  'joined,'  Phi.  juxt,  New  Pers.  jw/if, 

Afy.  juxt  Av.  ?/am  '  barley,'  Phi.  jav,  yav,  New  Pers.  jav,  Bal. 
Jo,  jav,  N.  Bal.,  Kurd,  jau,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).     Av.  ydma 

'  glass,'  Pill,  jdtn,  yam,  New  Pers.  jatn. 

y>h. 

§  332.     The  change  oi  y  to  h  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  2>uy(i^ pus,' Pali  jpuhha.  Skt.  jardyu' uterus,' 
Tsih  jaldhu,  Simh.  dalabu. 

y  >  hh. 

§  333.     Tlie  change  of  y  to  hh  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  sarayu  name  of  a  river,  Pali  sarabhu. 

y  >r. 

§  334.     The  change  of  ^  to  r  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  srdmaneya  'novice,'  Pali  sdmanera.  Skt. 
sndyn  '  sinew,'  Jaina  Prak.  nhdru,  Pali  nahdru,  Sirhh.  naharmja. 

y  >l 

§  335.     The  change  oi  y  tol  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  yasti  '  staff,'  Prak.  lattlii,  6aur.  Prak.  jatthi, 
Pali  latthi,  Ur.,  Bang.  Idthl,  Hindi  ldt{i),  IdtM,  Panj.  lafthi,  Sindhi 
Idthl,  Guj.  Idt,  Idth,  Mar.  latth.    Skt.  dyotayati  '  illuminates/  Pali 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  111 

jotaJati,  jotayati^joteti.    Bihar!  dilotarsu  '  one  hundred  and  two  ' 
beside  diyotarsu  (on  the  analogy  of  tilOtarsu,  calOtarsti,  etc.). 

y  >  ^• 
§  336.     The  change  oi  if  to  v  occurs  very  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mrgaya  ^hunt,'  Pali  migava.  Skt.  trayas- 
trimsat  '  thirty-three/  Jaina  Prak.,  Pali  tavattisa,  Kasm.  tyaya- 
traJi,  Biharl  taimtis,  cf.  archaic  Siihh.  tavaJc.  Skt.  ayudha 
'  weapon,'  Prak.  diiJia,  Pais.  Prak.  ayudha,  Pali  ayudha,  avudha, 
Simh.  avi{ya). 

y  >h. 

§  337.     The  change  of  y  to  It  is  an  exceedingly  rare  one. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  chdya  '  shadow,'  Prak.  chahd  '  shadow,' 
chdyd  '  beauty,'  Pali  chdyd,  Ur.  chdhma,  Hindi  chdmh,  chdni{v), 
chdom,  Panj.  ca(?7)m,  Sindhi  chdm{v),  Guj.  cmhy.  Skt.  ranah- 
jaya  '■  victorious,'  Pali  rananijaha.  Skt.  svayamjpati  '  epithet  of 
Brahma,'  Pali  sahampati. 

Apocope  of  y. 

§  338.     The  loss  of  an  original  initial  y  is  found,  although  but 
seldom,  in  the  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  yuJcd  '  louse,'  Pali  uM,  Hindi  jtim,  Gyp.  juv. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  yusmdJcam  'of  you,'  GAv.  xsmaka,  YAv. 
yusnidhdm,  Paz.,  New  Pers.  sumd,  Bal.  savci.  Dig.  Oss.  smax,  Tag. 
sumax. 

Syncope  of  y. 

§  339.     The  loss  of  an  original  y  is  not  a  very  frequent  phe- 
nomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Jcisalaya  'sprout,'  Prak.  Jcisala,  hisalaya. 
Skt.  hrdaya  'heart,'  Prak.  hiaa,  hiaya,  Pais.  Prak.  hitaaJca, 
Ass.,  Ur.,  Bang,  hia,  Panj.  hiduni,  hiydm,  etc.  (see  §  330).  Skt. 
vdyu  '  wind,'  Prak.  vdu,  Pali  vdyu,  Ur.  Ida,  Bang.,  Hindi  hd'i, 
hdo,  Panj.  vdu,  Sindhi  hd^,  vdii,  Guj.  m{;i),  Mar.  vdv.     Skt.  devor 


112  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

lay  a  '  temple/  Ur.  deul,  Bang,,  Hindi  deval^  Panj,  devdla,  Sindhi 
devali,  Guj.  dcval,  Mar.  dcval,  deul. 

Prothesis  of  y. 
§  340.     Prothetic  y  is  occasionally  found  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  eva  '  indeed/  Prak.  yeva,  Saur.  Prak.  jewa, 
Pali  eva,  yeva,  heva.  Skt.  dvirbhutvd  '  having  become  manifest/ 
Jaina  Prak.  ydvihottd. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  dtars  '  fire/  Phi.  dtas,  New  Pers.  {d)tas,  dtis, 

Gab.  tas,  Siyn.  ydc,  Sarq.  yuc,  Minj.  yur,  N.  Bal.  dc.     Av.  asj^a 

'  horse/  Phi.,  New  Pers.  asp,  WaxI  yas,  Minj.,  Yidg.  2/«52?,  Afy. 

as,  Bal.  {h)a2)s,  Kurd.  Aas^,  Dig.   Oss.  a^a,  Tag.  ?/a/5.     Av. 

ahmi  '  I  am,'  Old  Pers.  amiy,  New  Pers.  am,  Afy.  2/«»^  «wi, 

Kurd.  im. 

aya  >  d. 

§  341.  The  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  y  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects,  which  has  been  noted  in  §  339,  gives  rise  to 
various  contractions.  Similar  contractions  often  occur  in  conse- 
quence of  the  syncope  of  Indo-Iranian  consonants.  The  contrac- 
tion of  aya  to  d  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ahhyayana  'rehabilitation/  Pah  ahhhdna. 
Skt.,  Pali  udaya  '  rise,'  Simh.  udd. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  ddrayavaus  nom.  prop.,  Phi.  ddriav, 
New  Pers.  ddrd{h),  ddrdv. 

aya  >  e. 

§  342.  The  contraction  of  aya  to  e  is  the  normal  one  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects.  It  is  carried  out  in  all 
causatives  in  the  Middle  Indian. 

a.  Indian.    Skt.  dhdrayati  '  holds,'  Prak.  dhdrei,  Pali  dhdreti. 

Skt.  Jcathayati  *  tolls,'  6aur.  Prak.  kadhedi,  hahedl,  Piili  katheti. 

Skt.  nayati  *  leads,'  Prak.  nei,  Saur.  Prak.  nedi.  Pais.  Prak  neti, 

Pali  nayati,  neti,  Gatha  upaneti.    Skt.  hsaya  '  destruction,'  Mag. 

Prak.,  Pali  khaya,  Hindi,  Panj.  chai,  Guj.  Jche,  Mar.  Jchat.     Skt., 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  113 

Prak.,  Pali  hhaya  'fear,'  Ur.  hhe,  Hindi,  Panj.  hhdi^  Sindhi  hhai, 
Ihau,  Mar.  hhc.  Skt.  nayana  'eye,'  Prak.  naana,  Pali  nayana, 
Hindi,  Panj.  nain^  Sindhi  nenu,  Guj.  nenam,  nemn.  Skt.  maya 
'mother,'  Siihh.  maeniyam.  Skt.  sayanasana  'bed-room,'  Pali 
sayanasana,  Siiiih.  senasim. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  paourva  ' former '  + a^/ara  'day,'  Phi,,  New 
Pers.  parer,  K!a§.  pare,  Bal.  paren,  pairerl  '  last  year,'  N.  Bal. 
phairi.     Av.  zaycitl  '  is  born,'  Pamir  dialects  2%d. 

ayu  >  6. 

§  343.     The  contraction  of  ayu  to  6  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mayura  '  peacock,'  Prak.,  Pali  mora,  Kasm., 
Ur.  mor,  Sindhi  moru,  Guj.,  Mar.  mor. 

ayo  >  e,  ai. 

§  344.     The  contraction  of  ayo  to  c,  di,  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  trayodasa  'thirteen,'  Prak.  tcraha,  tedasa 
(inscriptions  of  Klialsi),  trciidasa  {inscrij)tions  of  Girnar),  Pali 
terasa,  Kasm.  truvdh,  Ur.  tera,  Bang,  tero,  Hindi  terali,  Panj. 
terdm,  Sindlil  terahdni,  Guj.  ter,  Mar.  tcrd. 

iya  >  t 

§  345.     Tlie  contraction  of  iya  to  I  is  a  rare  one. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hiyant '  how  much  ? '  Pali  hittaha  <  *Jciyat- 
taJca. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt,  priya  '  beloved,'  Av.  frya,  New  Pers.  fn. 

dya  >  d. 

§  346.     The  contraction  of  dya  to  d  seems  to  be  the  most  usual 
one  to  which  dya  is  subject, 

a,  Indian.  Skt.  vdihdyasa  '  aerial,'  Jaina  Prak.,  Pali  vehdsa. 
Skt,  iipatthdyaTca '  servant,'  Pali  upatthdTta.  Skt,  Mldyasa  '  iron,' 
Pali  Jcdldsa,  Jcdldyasa. 

b,  Iranian.    Old  Pers.  xsdyadiya  'king,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sdJi. 

I 


114  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

aya  >  e 

§  347.     The  contraction  of  dya  to  e  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  joalayati  '  flees/  Mahar.  Prak.  paldyai,  Pali 
paleti. 

aya  >  at. 
§  348.     The  contraction  of  dya  to  a'i  is  found  in  Ossetish. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  frasndyanta  'they  washed,'  Dig.  Oss.  axsmm, 
Tag.  axsnin  'w^sh/  Tag.  na'in  'bathe.'  Skt.  rdyati  'bellows,' 
Oss.  ram. 


r  =  r. 

§  349.     Indo-Iranian  r  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rehlid  'streak,'  Prak.  rclid,  Pali  reJchd,  Hindi, 
Panj.  rcJiJi,  Sindlil  i'egJii,  Guj.  reg,  Mar.  re{g)h.  Skt.  rdjan  '  king,' 
Prak.  rdd,  Mag.  Prak.  lad,  Mahar.  Prak.  rdyd,  Pais.  Prak.  raja, 
Culikapais.  Prak.  rdcd,  Pali  rdjan,  Hindi  rdu,  rdv,  Simh.  racla. 
Skt.  Jcarpiira  '  camphor,'  Mahar.  Prak.,  Pali  kappura,  Hindi, 
Panj.,  Sindlil,  Guj.  Tiapur,  Mar.  hdpur.  Skt.  svasura  '  father-in- 
law,'  Pali  sasura,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi  sasur,  Panj.  sahurd,  saw- 
hurd,  Sindlil  sahurd,  Guj.,  Mar.  sdsard,  Maladive  Imrs. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  raoyna  '  oil,'  Plil.  rokan,  royan.  New  Pers. 
rOyan,  Kas.  ruyan,  ro,  WaxI  ruyiin,  ruyii,  Sarq.  ravan,  Sangl. 
roy,  Minj.  rayan,  Kurd.  riin.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  rdsta  'right,'  Phi., 
New  Pers.  rdst,  Oss.  rast,  rastli.  Av.  raocah  '  day,'  Old  Pers. 
raucah.  Phi.  roc{th).  New  Pers.  ru^.  Gab.  rilj,  Caspian  dialects 
ru,  but  Kas.  rU,  Tal.  roz,  ruz,  Afy.  rvaj,  Bal.  roc,  N.  Bal.  ro5, 
Kurd,  ruz,  ro{z).  Av.  stora  'star,'  Phi.  stdrah.  New  Pers. 
sitdrah,  Waxi  s^ar,  Siyn.  iJtorJ,  Sarq.  xturj,  Sangl.  usturak,  Minj. 
astdri,  Afy.  storai,  Kurd,  istirk,  Zaza  asfar,  Oss.  5toZ^.  Av. 
x"araiti  '  eats,'  Old  Pers.  ixapn-xopa,  Phi.  x^'arfano.  New  Pers. 
xurdan,  Kas.  xurtan,  Siyn.  xaram,  Sarq.  xoram,  Sangl.  x^aram, 
Minj.  xaram,  Afy.  x^'aral,  Bal.  varag,  N.  Bal.  varay,  Kurd. 
A'wriw,  x^drin,  Dig.  Oss.  xvarun.  Tag.  xarin. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  ^^^^  115 

r  >j. 

§  350.     The  change  of  r  to  j  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Ski,  Pali  purana  'fulfilment,'  Hindi  pujna, 
SindliT  piijanu. 

r  >  dJi. 

§  351.     Tlie  change  of  r  to  (Ih  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  arahdJia  '  beginning,'  Prak.  aclJiatta,  draddha, 
Miihar.  Prak.,  Pali  draddha.     [See  now  Pischel,  §  223.] 

r  >  d. 

§  352.     The  change  of  r  to  c?  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  purandara  '  epithet  of  Indra,'  Pali  piirin- 
dada,  purinda  (by  assimilation  or  false  analogy). 

r  >  n. 

§  353.     Tlie  change  of  r  to  n  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  ddraydmiy  '  I  hold,'  Plil.,  New  Pers. 
ddram,  WaxI  vaburam,  Sarq.  horam,  Lad.  ddnam.  Phi.,  New 
Pers.  mar  '  serpent,'  Afy.  mangarai. 

r  >  I. 

§  354.     The  change  of  r  to  Z  is  by  far  the  most  common  of  all 

the  changes  to  which  Indo-Iranian  r  is  subject,  both  in  the  Indian 

and  in  the  Iranian  dialects.     In  Magadhi  Prakrit  r  becomes  I 

everpvhere.     Similarly    in   the    Prakrit    of    the   inscriptions   of 

Dhauli,  Jaugada,  Khalsi,  Bhabra,  Sahasaram,  and  Bairat  r  becomes 

I  throughout,  but  in  the  inscriptions  of  Eupnath  r  occurs  twice. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  ratm  'night,'  Prak.  raftt,  rdJ,  Mag.  Prak. 

latti,  Pali  ratti,  Ur.,  Bang.  rdt{i),  Hindi  rat,  Panj.  rat,  Sindhi 

rdti,  Guj.,  Mar.  rat.     Skt.   carana  'foot,'  Prak.  calana,  Saur. 

Prak.  also  carana,  Apab,  Prak.  calanu,  Pais.  Prak.  calana,  Pclli 

carana.      Skt.    Jidridra    'yellow,'   Prak.,    Pali   hdlidda.      Skt. 

pariglia  '  iron  bar,'  Pali  paliglia.     Skt.  rejju  '  string,'  Ass.  It'ju, 

E.   Hindi    lejuri.      Skt.    catvdrimsat    'forty,'    Prak.    cattdlUa, 

I  2 


116  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

cdalisa,  Pali  caftaMsa,  cattansa,  Kasra.  catajih,  Ur.  cdlisa,  Bang. 
callisa,  Bihari  calls,  Hindi  calls,  Panj.  call,  Sindhi  cdl'ih,  Guj., 
Mar.  ccilis,  Simh.  hataljha,  sataljha. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  raecayat  '  poured,'  Phi.  rextano,  Paz,  rezed, 
New  Pers.  rextan.  Gab.  rctmim.  Von.  r5f«w,  WaxI  varicam, 
Sarq.  varaizam,  Bal.  n'ca^f,  N.  Bal.  rllay,  Kurd,  ref/w,  Dig.  Oss. 
lejun,  Tag.  Zejiw.  Av.  vdrayna  '  raven,'  Phi.  valay,  varay,  vdraJc. 
Av.  (s^a)  tauruno  'puppy,'  Phi.  taruk,  tiiriiJc,  toruk,  torah.  New 
Pers.  tolah,  torah.  Gab.  torah,  Kas.  ^ora,  fiira,  tura,  Bal.  ^yZa(/, 
N.  Bal.  tJiolay,  Kurd.  tura.  New  Pers.  silrax  'hole,'  Judaeo- 
Pers.  suldx,  Afy.  sural.  Av.  maolri  'ant,'  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
?)ior,  Gab.  mortk,  Von.  mdrcuna.  Dig.  Oss.  muljug.  Tag.  maljig. 
Av.,  Phi.,  New  Pers.  war  '  man,'  Sangl.  narah,  Afy.,  Bal.,  Kurd. 
war.  Dig.  Oss.  waZa,  Tag.  nal. 

r  >  I. 

§  355.     The  change  of  r  to  |  is  not  a  very  frequent  one.     It  is, 
of  course,  confined  to  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  aiogdra  '  coal,'  Pnlk.  imgdld,  Pali  amgdra, 
Guj.  inigdro,  amgdro,  Mar.  imgdl{d),  imgul,  G}^.  angdr.  Skt. 
catvdrimsat  '  forty,'  Pali  cattdlisa,  cattansa,  Panj.  caZj,  Simh. 
hataliJia,  satallha,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt,  Jcsdra  'ashes,' 
Prak.  chdra,  Pali  hlidra,  chdrlka,  New  Ind,  dialects  khdr,  but 
Sindhi  clidru,  Simh.  {h)alu,  Maladive  hulu. 

Syncope  of  r. 

§  356.     The  loss   of  an   original  r  is  infrequent  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  param,  pare  '  beyond,'  Mag.  Prak.  pale, 
Apab.  Prak,  pall,  Bihari  pdi.  Skt,  durosdrlta  '  duly  and  unduly 
restored,'  Pali  dosarlta. 

b.  Iranian,  Paz.,  New  Pers,  a<7ar  '  if, '  Siv,  ay.  New  Pers. 
kar  '  make ! '  Gab.  kar,  Central  dialects  ka,  Ka§.  kl.  Nay.  nika. 
New  Pers.  har  'bear!'  Zaf.  bar.  Kas.  &a,  Von.  bar,  Kuhr.,  Kurd. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  117 

la.  Av.  mcifar  '  mother,'  Phi.  maf{ar),  New  Pers.  mddar,  Gab. 
mciye,  Kas.  ma%  moi/a,  Maz.  w«(7r,  milr^  Gil.  mar,  wiaar,  Tal.  mti, 
Siyn.  ma^Z,  Minj.  mayd,  Afy.  w?or,  Bal.  wia^,  N.  Bal.  md6^  mas, 
Kurd.  maTi,  Dig.  Oss.  mada.  Tag.  wwld 

EpentJiesis  of  r. 
§  357.     Epenthetic  r  occurs  in  the  Indo-Iranian  dialects  very 
rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  lioti  'ten  millions,'  Mag.  Prak.  hodi.,  Biharl 
Tiaror,  Jiaror,  Hindi  kror,  Anglo-Ind.  crore.  Skt.  vydsa  nom. 
prop.,  Apab.  Prak.  vrdsu.  Skt.  Jjltasya  '  commentary,'  Prak. 
Wirdsa. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tasat  '  shaped,'  archaic  New  Pers.  idsltan, 
Afy.  tarxaj.  Av,  haxta  'fate,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  haxt,  Afy. 
harxa,  hraxa.  Av.  aH  dahdka  nom.  prop..  Phi.  aie  dahdJc, 
New  Pers.  azdahd  '  dragon,'  Kurd.  aMarJia,  azdalia. 


1=  I 
§  358.  Indo-Iranian  Z  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  in  the 
Indian  dialects.  In  Old  Iranian  Indo-Iranian  I  was  entirely  lost, 
excepting  in  the  foreign  proper  names  haldita  and  duhdia  in  the 
Old  Persian  inscriptions.  In  the  Middle  and  New  Iranian  I 
reappears,  sometimes  representing  Indo-Iranian  I,  and  sometimes 
Indo-Iranian  r. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  lagna  '  attached,'  Prak.,  Pali  lagga,  Hindi  laga, 
lag,  Panj.  lag,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  lag.  Skt.  limjpati '  smears,' 
Prak.  limpai,  Pali  limpati,  Ur.  lip,  Bang,  lep,  Hindi  lip,  Up, 
Panj.  lipjp,  limb,  limm,  Sindhi  liml>,  Guj.  lip.  Mar.  Up.  Skt. 
dmalaJM  '  myrobalan,'  Prak.  dmalaa,  Pali  dmaUika,  Ur.  dmala. 
Bang.  aoZa,  aiiZa,  Hindi  dmvald,  Panj.  awte,  Sindhi  dmviro.  Mar. 
amvald.  Skt.  ca?a/i  'wanders,'  Prak.  m?a?,  Pali  calati,  Ur., 
Bang.  caZ,  Hindi  mZ,  Marw.  car,  Panj.  caZ?,  Smdhi  cal,  Guj,, 
Mar.  mZ,  cal.  Skt.,  Pali  xnppala  'sort  of  tree,' Bang,  pippal, 
Biharl,  E.  Hindi  pipar,  Panj,  pippal,  Sindhi  pipiru,  Guj,  j)?j>«Z, 
Mar.  pimpal. 


118  IN  DO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  lap  'lip,'  New  Pers.  lab,  Kas.  lav,  Tat  Zov, 
Wax!  lav,  lajc,  Sangl.  lav,  Bal.  lay^,  Kurd,  liv  (cf.  Lat.  labium, 
Anglo-Saxon  lippa).  Phi.  lisfano  'lick,'  New  Pers.  listan,  7iB.t, 
Kas.  hales,  Wax!  lixam  (cf.  Skt.  lehmi,  rehmi  '  I  lick/  Gk.  Aeixw, 
Lith.  le^iii,  O.  H.  Germ,  leckon).  Av.  garah  'throat,'  Phi. 
gariih,  New  Pers.  5r<«??7,  f/rt?2T,  Sangl.  yar,  Afy.  yara,  Kui-d.  (/ar«t 
(cf.  Skt.  gala,  Lat.  (/M?a,  0.  H.  Germ.  hela). 

l>d. 
§  359.     The  change  of  I  to  d  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  x)aldsa  'green,'  Sak.  Prak.  pacjasa.  Skt. 
laldta,  rardfa  '  forehead,'  Prak.  niddla,  Pali  laldta,  naldta  (cf. 
lexicog.  Skt.  nitala).  Skt.  ^dZa 'palmyra-palm,' Pali  ^a7a,  Ur. 
^a|.  Bang,  ^a/,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  tad,  tar. 

I  >  n. 
§  360.     The  change  of  I  to  n  is  quite  frequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects.     In  Uriya  and  Bangall  initial   I  is  almost  always  pro- 
nounced n. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Icmgala  '  plough, '  Prak.  namgala,  I  am  gala, 
Pali  namgala,  Biharl  Idmgal,  Mar.  ndmgar,  Simh.  nagula, 
nagala.  Skt.  laldta,  rardta  'forehead,'  Prak.  niddla,  Pali 
naldta,  lalrita.  Skt.  lavana  '  salt,'  Prak.,  Pali  lona,  Kasm.,  Ur., 
Bang,  nun,  Ion,  Biharl  Ion,  non,  Hindi  non,  nun,  liln,  Panj. 
niin,  Sindhi  liinii,  Guj.  lun.  Mar.  land.  Gyp.  Ion.  Skt.  lunt{]i)d 
'robbery,'  Ur.  nutl,  Hindi  hit,  Anglo-Ind.  loot.  Skt.  dehall 
'  threshold,'  Pali  dehani.     Skt.  jamMla  '  rose-apple  tree,'  Biliari 

jdmun. 

I  >  r. 

§  361.     The  change  of  Z  to  r  is  the  most  frequent  of  all  the 

changes  to  which  Indo-Iranian  I  is  subject.     In  Old  Iranian,  as 

already  noted  in  §  358,  original  I  has  become  r  throughout. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  yamala  '  pair,'  Jfiina  Prak.  ydvara,  Pali  ya- 

mala.     Skt.  dlambana  '  support,'  Pali  drammana.    Skt.  pippala 

'  sort  of  tree,'  E.  Hindi  j^W^^f,  Sindlil  pipiru,  etc.  (see  §  358). 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  119 

Skt.  sydmala  'swarthy,'  Pali  sdmala,  E.  Hindi  sdmvar,  Hindi 
sdmvald,  W.  Hindi  sdnivrail,  Panj.  sdmvald,  Sindhi  sdmviru, 
sdmvalu,  Mar.  sdmvald. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt jihdla  'plough,' New Pers.  stipdr,  Sarq.  sjmr, 
Afy.  spdra.  Skt.  lopdsa  'fox,'  Phi.  ropas,  lopas,  New  Pers. 
rdhdh,  Gab.  nwds,  Sarq.  rey^c,  Bal.  rophasl',  Kurd.  r^Tv^,  Dig. 
Oss.  rohas,  Tag.  riibas.  Skt.  Z/A-.sa  '  nit,'  New  Pers.  risk,  Afy. 
rica,  Dig.  Oss.  lislia^  Tag.  Z/5Z;. 

?  >  I 
§  362.     The  change  of  Z  to  Z  occurs  frequently  in  the  Indian 
dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Prak.  hdla  '  black,'  Pali  Tidla,  Ur.  liold^  Bang., 
Hindi  hdld,  Panj.  hdld,  Sindhi  hard,  Guj.  /i«to,  Mar.  lidld,  Simh., 
Maladive  Tcdlu.  Skt.  sthala  'place,'  Ur.,  Panj.  thai,  Sindhi 
tharu,  Guj.,  Mar.  thai  Skt.  talati  'totters,'  Ur.  tal,  Bang., 
Hindi  tal,  Panj.  tal,  Sindhi  til,  tar,  Guj.,  Mar,  tal. 

Syncope  of  I. 
§  363.     The   syncope   of  an  original  I  is   an  excessively  rare 
phenomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  JcinculaJca  '  earth-worm,'  Mag.  Prak.  Jcim- 
culae,  Biharl  kemcuvd,  hemcvd.  Skt.  halivarda  'bull,'  Prak. 
ha'illa,  Pali  halivadda.  Skt.  Jchalu  '  indeed,'  Prak.  (k)l:hu, 
Shahbazgarhi  inscriptions  hlio,  Im,  Pali  hho. 


V  =  V. 
§  364.     Indo-Iranian  v  remains  in  general  unchanged  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  varfiJcd  '  wick,'  Prak.  vattid,  Pali  vatfiM,  Ur. 
hati,  Bang,  hdti,  Hindi,  Panj.  latti,  Sindhi  vati,  Guj.  hati,  Mar. 
batti.  Skt.  vrscika  '  scorpion,'  Prak.  vimchia,  vimcliua,  vimciia, 
vihcua,  Pali  vicchika,  Ur.  hic1iu{d),  Bang.  hicM,  Hindi  hicliud, 
Panj.  biccJm,  Sindlil  hicJmni,  vimchfi,  Guj.  vmichu,  vichu.  Mar. 
vimcu.     Skt.  pavana  '  wind,'  Prak.  pailna,  Pali  pavana,  Kasm. 


120  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

pdvan,  Ur.,  ^a,ng.  pahan,  other  New  Indian  dialects  pavan,  also 
Hindi  pailn,  Panj.  pai'm,  Guj.  ^ow.  Skt.  navati  '  ninety/  Prak. 
naiiim,  Fali  navuti,  Kasm.  namath,  Ur.  naba,  Bang,  nahhm,  Biharl 
nahhe,  Hindi,  Panj.  navve,  Sindhi  nave,  Guj.  nevum,  Mar.  navvad. 
b.  Iranian.  Av.  vardcafdhvant  'glorious,'  Phi.  varc,  varj, 
New  Pers.  varj.  Av.  ?;a^a  '  wind,'  Phi.  wj.  New  Pers.  had, 
Gab.  vafZ,  Siv.  vdi,  Zaf.  «7o,  Kas.  V(ji,  Von.,  Kuhr.,  Nay.  vOd,  Nat. 
vad,  Maz.  t7a.  Tat  wr,  Afy.  vo,  Bal.  ^fvaf,  N.  Bal.  gvaO,  gras, 
Kurd,  mi,  ha.  Tag.  Oss.  ■yr7d  Av.  vafra  '  snow,'  Phi.  wa/r.  New 
Pers.  harf,  Gab.,  Kas.,  Maz.,  Gil.  varf,  Tal.  va,  Judaeo-Pers. 
vaJir,  Sangl.  varf,  Minj.  varfa,  Afy.  va?;r«,  Kurd.  «;a/r,  Zaza 
vaura.  Av.  nava  'new,'  Phi.  navah,  nok,  Paz.,  New  Pers.  no, 
Gab.  W027a,  Kas.,  Siyn.  nav,  Sarq.  ?«w;,  Afy.  naval,  Bal.  woZ;, 
N.  Bal.  nox,  Kurd,  wm,  Dig.  Oss.  navag,  Tag.  j^ijo^;.  Av.  (?aez;a 
'  demon,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  dev,  WaxI  liv,  Siyn.  gfv,  Sarq.  hev. 

v  >  u. 
§  365.     The  vocalization  or  samprasarana  of  original  t;  to  m  is  a 
rare  phenomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pavana  'wind,'  Prak.  pauna,  Hindi  pailn, 
pavan,  Panj.  pailn,  pavan,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.,  Prak., 
Pali  deva  '  god,'  New  Ind.  dialects  dcv,  also  Ur,,  Bang,  de,  Hindi 
deo,  deii,  Panj.,  Sindhi  dm,  Gyp.  devel,  del. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vaenaiti  'sees,'  Old  Pers.  vaindhy,  Phi. 
venat.  New  Pers.  hlnad,  WaxI,  Siyn.  vlnam,  Sarq.  vainam,  Afy. 
vinam,  Dig.  Oss.  vimm.  Tag.  tmin.  Av.  yava  'barley,'  Phi. 
yav,  jav.  New  Pers.  jav,  Siv.  ?/m,  Zaf.  yah,  Kas.  ya,  Kulir.  yah, 
Siyn.  2/«vaj,  Sarq,  yaugj,  Yayn,  ?/«?/,  Bal,  jo,  Jav,  N.  Bal.,  Kurd, 
jau,  MukrI  yo,  Oss.  yau.  Av.  avlvanta  'bevomited,'  archaic 
New  Pers.  vdmitan,  Dig.  Oss.  vomun,  Tag.  ■Mm^?^. 

V  >  h. 
§  366.     The  change  of  v  to  ^'  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian,  Av.  varoha  'plant,'  Phi.  vartd,  gul,  New  Pers. 
gid  '  rose,'  Samn.  vdla,  Kurd,  hulilh. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  121 

V  >  g. 
§  367.    The  change  of  v  to  g  occurs  regularly  before  ti  in  Pazand 
and  New  Persian. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  v'ltardta  '  crossed,'  Old  Pers.  viyatarmjama, 
Phi,  vitdtiano,  New  Pers.  guhastan,  Gab.  vaddrta,  Von.  haidor- 
nan,  Kuhr.  haudarnadan,  Kurd.  huJiurtin,  hahartin.  Av.  vdhrha 
'  wolf/  Phi.,  New  Pers.  gurg,  Kas.  var{g),  Maz,  vz(r(/,  Yidg.  vury, 
Yayn.  aitraJc,  Afy.  lug,  Bal.  gvarJc,  gurJc,  N.  Bal.  gurkh,  Kurd, 
var^,  Dig.  Oss.  l>eray,  Tag.  ?>7ray.  Av.  vardtata  '  surroimding,' 
Phi.  vastauo,  gastano,  New  Pers.  gdsfan,  Gab.  vdstmun,  Sarq. 
yirsam,  Kurd,  gariydn.  Av.  VBrdzijeiti  '  does,'  Phi.  i'ar^  '  agri- 
culture,' New  Pers.  Jar^,  Judaeo-Pers.  var^,  Kurd,  gurdn.  Av. 
vlsaiti  '  twenty,'  PhL  t/75^,  New  Pers.  6i5f,  Kas.  vlstd,  vis{sd), 
Waxi  vlst,  Sarq.  vist,  Bal.  </l5f.  Dig.  Oss.  insai,  Tag.  s^aj. 

It  is  to  be  noted  also  that  Old  Pers.  vi  >  Mid.  Pers.  *t?w  > 
Paz.,  New  Pers.  gu,  and  that  Old  Pers.  *vr  >  Mid.  Pers.  *vur 
>  Paz.,  New  Pers.  gur. 

V  >  gh,  y. 

§  368.     Tlie  change  of  v  to  gh,  y,  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vardtata  'surrounding,'  Sarq.  yirsam,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §). 

V  >  gv. 

§  369.    Tlie  change  of  v  to  gv  is  regular  initially  before  «-vowels 
in  Balucl. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vdta  '  wind,'  Bal.  gvdt,  N.  Bal.  gvdd,  gvds, 
etc.  (see  §  364).  Av.  vdhrka  '  wolf,'  Bal.  gvarh,  gurh,  etc.  (see 
§  367).  Old  Pers.  vasiy  '  much,'  Phi.  vas.  New  Pers.  has,  Kas. 
vas,  Bal.  gvas. 

V  >  n. 

§  370.     The  change  of  v  to  n  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  navanavati  'ninety-nine,'  Bihar!  nindndbe 
(assimilation). 

V  >ph,f. 

§  371.     The  change  of  v  to  ph,  f,  is  extremely  rare. 


122  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  ava  '  this/  Paz.  o,  New  Pers.  av, 
6,  Kurd,  a/,  ava,  dv. 

V  >  b. 

§  372.  The  change  of  v  to  &  is  extremely  common  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects  (cf.  the  converse  change  of  h  to 
V,  §  308). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  suvrsti  '  abimdance  of  rain,'  Pali  siihhufthi. 
Skt.  vaspa  'tear,  vapor/  Prak.  hap2)(Ji)a  'smoke/  hdha  Hear/ 
Saur.  Prak.,  Pali  happa,  Ass.  hhdp,  Kasm.  hdha,  Ur.,  Bang. 
hhdp,  E.  Hindi  hd{m)pli,  Hindi  hd{m)ph,  hhdph,  Panj.  Mdph, 
Sindhi  hdph,  Guj.  hd(;m)pJi,  Mar.  vdph.  Skt.  vesta  '  enclosure,' 
Pali  vetJiaka,  Ass.  her,  Naip.  hdr,  Kasm.  vdr,  vdd,  Ur.  hedhd, 

■  hJiedd,  Bang,  hedd,  Hindi,  Panj.  hedhd,  Sindhi  vadeho,  Mult. 
verhd,  Mar.  vedhd.  Skt.  puravdsin  '  citizen,'  Biharl  purahdsJ. 
Skt.  vrddha  '  large,'  Prak.  vaddha,  vlddJia,  viiddha,  Pali  hudcjha, 
vaddha,  viddha,  viiddha,  Ass.  bar,  Naip.  &aro,  Kasm.  bor,  bod, 
Ur.,  Bang.  &a^a,  E.  Hindi  hard,  hard,  baddd,  Hindi  badd,  Panj. 
vaddd,  W.  Panj.  baddd,  Sindhi  vado,  Guj.  vado,  Gyp.  &aro.  Skt., 
Prak.,  Pali  virala  'thin,'  Simh.  burul. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vaeti  '  willow,'  Phi.  vet,  New  Pers.  bed.  Gab. 
Vic?,  Kas.  vicZ,  vet,  Afy.  vaZa,  N.  Bal.  geO,  Kurd,  hi,  vl.  Av. 
visaiti  '  twenty,'  New  Pers.  btst,  etc.  (see  §  367).  Av.  vdfa 
'wind,'  New  Pers.  bad,  Kurd,  bd,  vai,  etc.  (see  §  364).  Av. 
vdra  'rain,'  Phi.  vdrdn,  New  Pers.  bdrdn.  Gab.  bavdra,  Kas. 
vorun,  Maz.  vdris,  Waxi  vilr,  Sarq.  varaij,  varasa,  Afy.  varyaj, 
varyaz,  Kurd.  bdn{n),  Luri,  Zaza  varan.  Dig.  Oss.  vdrun.  Tag. 
varin.  Av.  vawa  '  tree,'  Phi.  vaw,  New  Pers.  621;?,  Afy.  vana, 
Bal.  ^vaw,  (/oi«.  Dig.  Oss.  bun.  Tag.  Zj/w.  Av.  husravah  'having 
fair  fame,'  Phi.  husrob.  New  Pers.  xusrav. 

v  >  hh. 

§  373.  The  change  of  v  to  bh  is  quite  common  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  being  the  sound  considered  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
further  influenced  by  a  neighbouring  sibilant,  aspirate  or  h. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  123 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vaspa  '  tear,  vapor,'  Ass.  hJici^),  Ur.,  Bang., 
l)hap,  Hindi  hhaph,  hn{')U)ph,  Panj.  hhdph^  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 
Skt.  vesta  '  enclosure,'  Ur.  hhcdci,  hedha,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

V  >  m. 

§  374.     The  change  of  v  to  m  is  not  common  in  the  Indian 
dialects,  while  in  the  Iranian  dialects  it  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ydvat  'how  long,'  tcwat  'so  long,'  Apab. 
Prak.  jama,  jdiini,  jdmahim,  tdfua,  tailm,  tdniahim,  Pali  ydva, 
tava.  Skt.  vdisravana  nom.  prop.,  Jaina  Prak.  vesaniana.  Skt. 
vijnaptika  *  request,'  Bang,  minati,  E.  Hindi  mintl,  Hindi 
minnat,  hintl,  Panj.  mmnat,  Sindhi  minti.  Skt.  nava  '  nine,' 
Prak.  nava,  Pali  nava,  Kasm.  ndu{m),  Ur.  naa,  Bang,  nay, 
Bihari,  Hindi  ndu,  Panj.  ndum,  naum,  Sindhi  namvam,  Guj., 
Mar.  nav,  Simh.  nama,  nava. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pairi  '  around' +  Vvard^  'do/  New  Pers. 
parvdz  'plough,'  Bux.  parmdz.  Skt.  vartiJcd  'partridge,'  Phi. 
vartah,  New  Pers.  vardij,  WaxI  vole,  Afy.  maraz,  nvaras,  Bal. 
gvarddg,  Kurd,  vard't. 

V  >y. 

§  375.    The  apparent  change  of  v  to  y  is  not  common  either  in 
the  Indian  or  in  the  Iranian  dialects  (cf.  the  following  §). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pravartati  '  proceeds,'  Prak.  payatfat.  Skt. 
diva  '  by  day,'  Jaina  Prak.  diyd.  Skt.  ddva  '  forest,'  Pali  ddya. 
Skt.  devara  'brother-in-law,'  Prak.  dcara,  diara,  devara,  Ur. 
deyara,  deyura.  Bang,  deyar,  Hindi,  Panj.  devar,  Sindhi  deru, 
Guj.  der,  deur,  Mar.  devar,  dtr. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  jufano  'gnaw,'  New  Pers.  jdvidan,  Afy. 
zOyal,  zoval,  Bal.  jdyag,  N.  Bal.  jdy,  Kurd.  ju{i)n. 

Syncope  of  v. 

376.     Syncope  of  v  is  not  common  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  jlva  'life,'  Frak.jia,  Pali  jfva.     Skt.  divasa 


124  JNDO-IBANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

'day,'  Prak.  divalm,  dialia,  Jaina  Prak.,  Pali  divasa,  Sindhi 
dlthhu,  Mar.  divas,  Simh.  davas,  divas.  Skt.  trayovimsati 
'  twenty-three/  Prak.  tevisa,  Pali  tevisa{ti),  Biharl  teis,  and 
similarly  the  other  New  Ind.  dialects,  excepting  Sindhi  irevili, 
Guj.  trcvJs,  Mar.  tcvis.  Skt.  uxmvista  'seated,'  Prak.  idjavitfha, 
uva'iUlia,  Pali  upaviWia,  Hindi,  Panj.  hdith^  Guj.  has,  Mar. 
hetlio. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gav  'cow,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  gav,  go,  Z&t., 
Ka§.,  Von.  go,  Kuhr.  goh,  WaxI  yau,  yii,  Siyn.  gdv,  Sarq.  iao, 
Sangl.,  Minj.  yao,  Yayn.  gova,  Afy.  yvd,  Bal.  ^oZ;,  N.  Bal.  gox, 
Kurd,  ga,  Dig.  Oss.  yog.  Tag.  g%.  Av.  yava  '  barley, '  Siv.  yu, 
Kas.  ?/a,  Bal.  Jo,  jav,  MukrI  yd,  etc.  (see  §  365).  Av.  vtsaiti 
'  twenty,'  Dig.  Oss.  insai,  Tag.  ssaj,  etc.  (see  §  367).  Av.  haevars 
'ten  thousand,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  Mvar,  Dig.  Oss.  heura,  her  a, 
Tag.  Z<^ra. 

Proihesis  of  v. 

§  377.     Prothetic  v  occurs  occasionally  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ucyate  '  is  said,'  Prak.  vucca'i,  Saur.,  Mag. 
Prak.  vuccadi,  Pali  vuccati.  Skt.  ukta  '  said,'  Prak.  (inscriptions 
of  Girnar)  vuta.  Skt.  iisita  '  inhabited '  beside  vasita,  Pali 
vuttha,  vusita. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  azdm  '  I,'  Old  Pers.  adam,  Tal.  az,  WaxI, 
§iyn.  VU3,  Sarq.  vaz,  Yidg.  zuh,  Afy.  sa,  Kurd.,  Oss.  az.  Av. 
asta  '  eight,'  Phi.  {h)a§t,  New  Pers,  7ial#,  WaxI  7ja5,  Siyn.  vast, 
Sarq.  vox^,  Eos.  hast,  Sangl.  Jidf,  Minj.  a^^-a,  Yayn.  uis,  Afy. 
a  to,  Oss.  asth.  Gk.  woy  '  egg, '  Lat.  ovum,  Phi.  xayah.  New  Pers. 
xdyah,  Gab.  «;j^^,  Afy.  /^a,  Bal.  /iaiA;,  Kurd.  JiaHh,  hi,  hek,  Oss. 
aiZ;^(a). 

Epenthesis  of  v. 

§  378.     Epenthetic  v  is  of  rare  occurrence. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  chdya  'shadow,'  Prak.  chdhd,  chdyd,  Pali 
chdyd,  Ur.  chdhina,  Hindi  clidmv,  chdmQi),  chdom,  Panj.  cd{u)m, 
Sindhi  chdmv,  chdm,  Guj.  cdmy. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  125 

ava  >  a. 

§  379.  The  loss  of  Indo-Iranian  v,  which  has  been  noted  in 
§  376,  gives  rise  to  various  contractions  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects.  The  contraction  of  ava  to  a  occurs  very 
rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  prahliavami  '  am  able,'  Prak.  pahhava'i,  Pali 
pahhavami,  Gaih^  prabhdmi.  Skt.  sanibliavanti  'are  able,' 
Prak.  samhhavat,  Pali  sambhavati,  Gatha  samhhdnti. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  srava^eiti  ^  chants,' Fhl.  srdyat,  New  Pers. 
srdyacl,  WaxI  siravam,  Sarq.  nasravam.  Av.  havdt  'may  be,' 
New  Pers.  bad. 

ava  >  u. 

§  380.  The  contraction  of  ava  to  u  occurs  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  lavana  'salt,'  Prak.,  Pali  lona,  Kasm.,  Ur. 
Bang,  nun,  Ion,  Biharl  Ion,  non,  Hindi  niln,  liin,  non,  Panj. 
nun,  Sindhi  lumi,  Guj.  lun.  Mar.  lotid.  Gyp.  Ion.  Skt.  avajhd 
'contempt,'  Pali  unnd. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  avastJiifa  '  firm,'  New  Pers.  usfdm,  ostdm. 

ava  >  e. 

§  381.     The  contraction  of  ava  to  e  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  avalanibati  'hangs  down,'  Elu  elabanavd, 
Simh.  ellanavd,  elvdn,  olamhu. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  navani  'nine,'  Old  Pers.  navama,  Paz.,  New 
Pers.  niih,  Kas.  muJido,  Tat  niif,  WaxI,  Siyn.  nao,  Sarq.  nav, 
Sangl.,  Minj.  nao,  Yayn.  nau,  Kurd.  7it'h. 

ava  >  0. 

§  382.  The  contraction  of  ava  to  o  is  the  normal  one  to  which 
ava  is  subject  both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  lavana  '  salt,'  Prak.,  Pali  lOna,  Kasm.,  Ur., 
Bang.  Ion,  nun,  Biharl  non,  Ion,  Hindi  non,  lun,  nun,  Panj.  nun, 


126  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Sindhi  lilmi,  Guj.  hin,  Mar.  land.  Skt.  hhavati  '  becomes,'  Prak. 
hoi,  Saur,  Prak.  {h)]iudl,  {h)Jmvadl,  {h)Jiavadi,  Mag.  Prak.  {h)Jiava'i, 
Jiuva'i,  Apab.  Prak.  liodi,  Pais.  Prak.  hhoti,  Pali  hhavati,  huti, 
Gatha  hhoti,  New  Ind.  dialects  ho,  excepting  Ur.  he,  Sindhi 
hua,  Skt.  samavasrsta  '  assembled/  Jaina  Prak.  samosadha,  Pali 
samosata.  Skt.  a^jara  '  lower/  Pali  ora.  Skt,  avavdda  *  coun- 
sel/ Pali  ovdda,  Siihh.  ova.  Skt.  avasydya  *  hoar-frost/  Bang. 
05,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Guj.  os. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  pravatd  '  downwards,'  Phi.  frof,  New  Pers. 
furod,  Sarq.  jprod  Av.  nava  'new,'  Phi.  noh,  navah,  Paz.,  New 
Pers.  no,  Bal.  noli,  N.  BaL  «iox,  Tag.  Oss.  nvog,  etc.  (see  §  364). 
Av.  avaha  '  there,'  Old  Pers.  avadd,  Bal.  odd,  N.  Bal.  o8a.  Tag. 
Oss.  vad.  Av.  navaiti  '  ninety,'  Phi.  navat,  New  Pers.  navad, 
Afy.  ware,  Kurd,  wo^,  wwd 

a»a  >  aw. 

§  383.     The  contraction  of  ava  to  au  is  quite  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhavala  '  white,'  Apab.  Prak.  dhavalu,  Ur., 
Bang.  dJiald,  Hindi  dhdiild,  Sindhi  dhdumro,  Guj.  dholum.  Mar. 
dhavd,  dJiaval.  Skt.  avatdra  'descent,'  Pali  otdra,  avatdra, 
Sindhi  dutdru,  avatdr. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  yava  'barley,'  Sarq.  yaugj,  Yayn.  yau, 
N.  Bal.,  Kurd,  jau,  Oss.  yau,  etc.  (see  §  365).  Av.  sydva 
'black,' Phi.  siydJc,  siydh,  New  Pers.  siydh,  Waxi  sH,  Sangl.  soi, 
Oss.  sau. 

am  >  e. 
§  384.     The  contraction  of  avi  to  e  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hhavisye  '  I  shall  be,'  Gatha  hhesye.  Skt. 
sthavira  '  monk,'  Prak.  thcra,  (inscriptions  of  Girnar)  thdira, 
Pali  tMra,  Mar.  ther(add). 

avi  >  di. 
§  385.     Tlie  contraction  of  avi  to  di  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sthavira  '  monk,'  Prak.  thdira  (inscriptions 
of  Girnar),  thera,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  127 


ava  >  0. 


§  386.     Tlie  contraction  of  ava  to  o  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  zavarj  '  might,'  Plil.  gor{tJi),  New  Pers.  zor. 

civaij  >  e,  ai. 

§  387.     The  contraction  of  iivay  to  e,  ai,  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  A  v.  lidvaya  'royal,'  Phi.  he,  Jcai,  Paz.,  New 
Pers.  kai. 

dvi  >  a. 

§  388.     The  contraction  of  dvi  to  d  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dvishrta  '  manifest,'  Phi.  dskdrdJc,  New  Pers. 
dsJcdr{d),  dsJcdrah,  Afy.  xhdra. 

ivd  >  0. 

§  389.     The  contraction  of  ivd  to  o  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ^Jwiiy^sm 'neighbour,' New  Indian  dialects 
parosJ,  padosl,  ])arosi. 

ive  >  0. 

§  390.     Tlie  contraction  of  ive  to  d  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  praiivesayati  '  distributes,'  Biharl  parosdi. 

wa  >  I. 

§  391.     The  contraction  of  Iva  to  I  is  quite  frequent  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  jvaiti  '  lives,'  Old  Pers.  jtvdhy,  Phi.  zTvas- 
iano,  New  Pers.  zlstan,  Kurd,  z'ln,  ziin.  Phi.  (Z?j?Imr  '  scribe,' 
dipir{i]i),  New  Pers.  dihir. 

cva  >  I. 

§  392.     The  contraction  of  cva  to  I  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  devara  'brother-in-law,'  Mar.  d'lr,  devar,  etc. 
(see  §  375). 

b.  Iranian.     New  Pers.  devdnali  '  bedevilled,'  Kurd.  din. 


128  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

uva  >  a. 

§  393.     Tlie  contraction  of  uva  to  a  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  yvan  '  youth,'  Phi.  yuvan,  New  Pers.  juvan- 
mard,  Kurd,  janmardi. 

uva  >  il,  0. 
§  394.     The  contraction  of  uva  to  u,  o,  is  the  normal  one  to 
wliich  uva  is  subject. 

b.  Iranian.  Iran.  *vadhuvahd  'bride/  New  Pers.  hayo{g), 
Kurd.  hiJJc.  Av.  drvatdt  *  health,'  Phi.  drut,  Paz.  durud,  New 
Pers.  durod. 


s  =  s. 
§  395.  Indian  s  is  retained  but  seldom  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
In  the  Middle  Indian  dialects  the  Magadhi,  Ardhamagadhi,  Avan- 
tika,  and  Sakarl  alone  preserve  s.  Of  the  New  Indian  dialects 
GujaratI  and  Marat  hi  often  retain  s,  although  great  confusion  in 
the  use  of  s  and  s  prevails.  Hindi  and  Sindhi  indeed  write  s,  but 
pronounce  the  s  as  s,  while  in  Bangall  s  is  pronounced  s. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sata  '  hundred,'  Prak.  sa{y)a,  Pais.  Prak. 
sate,  Mag.  Prak.  sada^  Pali  sata,  Ass.  5a,  Kasm.  hat,  Ur.  sae, 
Bang,  saya,  Hindi,  Panj.  sdi,  sdu,  Sindhi  sail,  Guj.  so,  Mar. 
sem,  sambhar,  Guj.  sel.  Skt.  sirsa  'head,'  Prak.  sisa,  sissa, 
Pali  Sisa,  Hindi,  Panj.  sis,  Sindlii  sisi,  Guj.  sis.  Mar.  si{m)s,  Elu 
hisa,  Simh.  isa,  iha.  Skt.  asiti  '  eighty,'  Prak.  asli,  Pali  aslti, 
Ass.  sit,  Kasm.  sitli,  Ur.  asl.  Bang,  dsi,  Biharl,  Hindi,  Panj. 
assl,  Sindhi  asi,  Guj.  emsi,  Mar.  emsl.  Skt.  dislya  'native,' 
Pali  desnja,  Ur.,  Bang.  desi{ya),  Hindi,  Panj.  dcsi,  Sindlii  desl, 
dehdi,  Guj.,  Mar.  dcsi. 

s  >  ch. 
§  396.     The  change  of  s  to  ch  occurs  quite  frequently  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sdvaJca  '  young  animal,'  Prak.  chdvaa,  Pali 
chdpa,  Ur.  ch{u)d.  Bang.  chd{m),  Hindi  chdkadd,  Panj.  chuhadd, 
chohard,  Sindhi  choJcado,  Guj.  chdvo,  choJcaru,  Mar.  chdvadd,  Gyp. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  129 

chavd.  Skt.  salcrt  '  once,'  Prdi  chaJcam.  Skt.  scsa  'end,'  Prak., 
Prdi  sesa,  Guj.  chevaf.  chcdo,  chello.  Skt.  sana  'hemp,'  Ur, 
chana,  Bang,  cliana. 

s  >  d. 

§  397.     The  change  of  s  to  (^  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  saka  'pot-herb,'  Pali  daka,  saka,  Kasm.  hak 
(cf.  Skt.  ddkinl  '  sort  of  female  demon '  beside  sakin'i). 

s  >y. 
§  398.     The  change  oi  s  to  y  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dvddasanavdrsa  'twelfth  year,'  Prak.  (inscrip- 
tions of  Kapur  di  Giri)  barayavasa,  (Dhauli,  Jaugada)  duvddasa- 
vdsa,  (Girnar)  dvddasavasa,  (IClialsi)  duvddasdvasa. 

s  >  V. 
§  399.     The  change  of  s  to  v  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  parasu  '  axe,'  Mahar.  Prak.  parasu,  Simh. 
porava,  Maladive  furO.     [Really  syncope  of  s  (cf.  §  402).] 

s  >  s. 
§  400.    Tlie  change  of  i  to  s  is  the  regular  one  to  which  Indian 
s  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  dialects  already  noted  in  §  395. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sohliati  'is  beautiful,'  Prak.  sohat,  Pais. 
Prak.  sobhati,  Pali  sobhhati.  Skt.  susrusd  '  obedience,'  Prak. 
(inscriptions  of  Shahbazgarhi  and  Kapur  di  Giri)  susrusd,  Pah 
sussusd.  Skt.  sata  'hundred,'  Prak.  sa{i/)a,  Pais.  Prak.,  Pali 
^ata,  Ass.  sa,  Hindi,  Panj.  sdi,  sdu,  Sindhi  sdu,  etc.  (see  §  395). 
Skt.  asJti  '  eighty,'  Prak.  asu,  Pali  asUi,  Biharl,  Hindi,  Panj. 
assi,  Sindhi  asl,  Guj.  ohsJ,  etc.  (see  §  395).  Skt.  slid  '  stone,' 
Prak,  sild,  Mag.  Prak.  sild,  Pali  slid,  Ur.  sila,  Bang,  sil,  Hindi 
sil,  Panj.  sil,  Sindhi  sir,  Mar.  sil. 

s  >  h. 

§  401.     The  change  of  s  to  h  is  quite  common  in  the  Middle 
and  New  Indian  dialects. 

E 


130  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dasa  'ten,'  Prak.  daha,  dasa,  Pali  dasa, 
Kasm.  dah,  Ur.,  Bang,  das,  das,  Hindi  das,  Panj.  (^a/i,  (?a5, 
Sindhi  dali,  Guj.  cZa5,  Mar.  (7a/^a,  Siiiih.  daJiaya,  dasa,  Gyp.  cZes. 
Skt.  svasura  'father-in-law/  Pali  sasura,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi 
sastir,  Panj.  sahurd,  sduhara,  Sindhi  salmru,  Guj.,  Mar.  sdsara, 
Maladive  Jmrs,  Gyp.  sastro,  sasro.  Skt.  jpaiw  '  cattle,'  Hindi 
(Doab,  Oude)  poke.  Skt.  Jccsarl  '  lion,'  Prak.,  Pali  Jcesarl,  Biharl 
TceJian,  hcsan,  Hindi  keJiari,  Panj.  I'char,  Sindlil  JceharJ,  Guj. 
Jcl'sarl.  Skt.  ^;asa  '  noose,'  Prak.,  Pali  ^Msa,  Hindi  ^Ja5,  phams, 
Panj.  j;«/i,  Sindhi  ^^/ta/ii,  phdsi,  Guj.  ^;c75.  Skt.  sirsa  '  head,'  Elu 
7«'5a,  etc.  (see  §  395). 

Apocope  and  syncope  of  s. 
§  402.    Tlie  loss  of  an  initial  or  internal  Indian  s  occurs  fre- 
quently in  the  Simhalese. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  s'lrsa  '  head,'  Simh.  isa,  ilia,  etc.  (see  §  395). 
Skt.  snoga  '  horn,'  Prak.,  Pali  simja,  Hindi  slmg.  Mar.  simg, 
Elu  samgu,  amgu,  Siihh.  amga,  si{m)gu,  sumgu.  Skt.  slsira 
'  cold,'  Prak.,  Pali  sisira,  Simh.  ill,  lidl.  Skt.  lasuna  '  onion,' 
Pali  lasuna,  Simh.  lilnu. 


s  =  s. 
§  403.     Tlie  retention  of  Indian  s  is  found  only  in  Kasmiri, 
Uriya,  and  Bangall. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sodasa  '  sixteen,'  Prak.  solaha,  Pali  solasa, 
sorasa,  Kasm.  surah.  Ur.  sohala,  Bang,  sola,  Biharl  surah, 
Hindi  solah,  Panj.  soldm,  Sindhi  sdrahani,  Guj.  sol,  Mar.  sold, 
Simh.  solosa.  Skt.  musa  'mouse,'  Ur.  milsd,  Bang.,  Hindi, 
Panj.  musa.  Gyp.  muso. 

s  >  Jch. 
§  404.     In  Hindi  and  Panjabi,  as  well  as  in  other  New  Indian 
dialects  in  sporadic  instances,  Indian  s  is  pronounced  kh,  even  if  s 
be  retained  in  script. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  hhdsd  '  vernacular,'  Prak.,  Prdi  hhdsd,  Naip. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  131 

hhas,  hhal'Jid,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  hhakha.  Skt.  manusa 
'  man,'  Prak.,  Pali  manusa,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  mamikli, 
Sindhi  mdmdchu,  Gyp.  manus. 

In  the  tadbhava  forms  of  these  semitatsamas  we  find,  as  we 
should  expect,  hMsd,  munus,  etc. 

s  >  ch. 
§  405.     The  change  of  5  to  ch  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sas  '  six,'  Prak,,  Pali  cha,  Kasni.  sail,  slh, 
Ur.  chaa,  Bang,  cliaya,  Biharl  cha,  Hindi  clia,  die,  Panj.  che, 
Sindlil  cha[h),  Guj.  cha,  Mar.  sah{d).  Old  Simh.  caJca,  Sirhh. 
haya,  saya,  Gyp.  so{v).  Skt.  satpada  '  bee,'  Prak,  chappaa,  Jaina 
Prak.  chappaya. 

§  >y' 

§  406.     The  apparent  change  oi  s  to  y  is  extremely  rare. 

a,  Indian.  Skt.  kansa  '  dry  cow-dung,'  Prak.,  Pali  Jcarisa, 
Simh.  hiriya  (cf.  §  422). 

s  >  s. 
§  407.     The  change  of  s  to  5  occurs  only  in  Middle  Indian, 
where  it  is  due  to  learned  influence. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  anvesanfi  '  they  seek,'  Mag.  Prak.  annesanti. 
Skt.  dlahhisyanfi  'they  will  be  immolated,'  Prak,  (inscriptions 
of  Kapur  di  Giri)  arahhisaniti  (cf,  the  parallel  passages  drahhi- 
sanire  Girnar,  dldhhdyisamti  Dhauli,  dlahhiyisamti  Jaugada, 
dldhhiyisamti  Khalsi). 

s  >  s. 
§  408.     The  change  of  5  to  5  is  the  normal  one  to  which  Indian 
s  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sodasa  '  sixteen,'  Prak.  solaha,  Pali  sOlasa, 
sorasa,  Ur.  sohala,  Biharl  sorah,  Hindi  solah,  Panj.  sdldm, 
Sindhi  suraham,  Guj.  sul.  Mar.  soUi,  Sirhh,  solosa,  etc.  (see  §  403). 
Skt.  sandha  '  eunuch,'  Prak.  sandlia.  Ass.  sdmr.  Bang,  safnr, 
E.  Hindi,  Hindi  sdmr,  Panj.  sdmdh,  Sindhi  sdnu,  Mult,  sdmh, 
sandhd,  Guj.,  Mar.  sdnid.     Skt.  vrsahha  'bull,'  Pruk.  vasaha, 

K  2 


132  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

usalia,  Pali  vascibha.     Skt.  ])nrusa  'man/  Priik.,  Pali  inirisa, 
'Ba.ng.  punis,  Hindi  jMris,  seraitatsama  jj?(rMX7i. 

s  >  h. 
§  409.     Tlie  change  of  5  to  h  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  eJcasasti  'sixty-one,'  Jaina  Prak.  cgahatthi, 
cgasatthi,  egayatthi,  egavaWii,  egatfJd,  Kasm.  eJcahdifh,  Panj. 
iJcaJiat,  Sindhi  ehaliathi.  Skt.  visa  'poison,'  Prak.,  Pali  visa, 
Panj.  hill,  his,  Sindhi  vihu. 


s  =  s. 
§  410.  Indo-Iranian  5  is  in  general  preserved  unchanged  in 
the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects,  while  in  the  Iranian  dialects 
Indo-Iranian  5  normally  becomes  h.  Iranian  s,  arising  from  Indo- 
Germanic  J:  (Old  Indian  s,  see  also  §§  395-402),  remains  unchanged 
in  most  cases  in  the  Middle  and  New  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sajjfan  'seven,'  Prak.,  Pali  satta,  Kasm. 
sath,  Ur.,  Bang.  sOta  (pron.  satu),  Biharl,  Hindi  sat,  Panj.  satt, 
Sindhi  sat,  Guj.,  Mar.  sat.  Skt.  simha  'lion,'  Prak.  siha, 
Mahar.  Prak.  simgha,  simha,  Pali  sllia,  Hindi,  Panj,  simgh, 
Sindhi  simgho,  simlm,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  simli.  Skt. 
Jcarpasa  'cotton,'  Prak.,  Pali  ha])pasa,  Ur.  Tcapci,  Bang,  hapds, 
Hindi  Jcapds,  Panj.,  Sindhi  Jcapah,  Guj.,  Mar,  Tidpils.  Skt.,  Pali 
atasl  '  linseed,'  Ur.  test,  Bang,  tisl,  E.  Hindi  ttsi. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sarali  'head,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sar,  WaxI, 
Sangl.,  Minj.  sar,  Afy.,  Bal.,  Kurd.,  Oss.  sar.  Av.  sarjta  'cold,' 
Phi.  sarf,  New  Pers.  sard,  Gab.  sart,  WaxI  siir{t),  Sarq.  j)cii- 
sorani,  Afy.  sor,  Bal.  sard,  N.  Bal.  sdrth,  Kurd,  sdr,  Tag.  Oss. 
said.  Av,  kasu  'small,'  Plil,  kas,  Paz.  kah,  New  Pers.  Jcih,  Gab. 
Tcasiik,  Zaf.,  Ka§.  has,  Von.  Tcassar,  Nay.  kas,  Afy.  kasr,  Bal. 
kas{s)dn,  Oss.  khasthar.  Av.  dasa  'ten,'  Phi.  dahum,  New 
Pers.  dah,  WaxI  has,  las,  oiyn.  Ms,  lis,  Sarq.  bcs,  Sangl.  das, 
Yidg.  lus,  Yayn.  das,  Afy.  las,  Kurd,  dav,  Zaza  das,  Oss. 
das{am).  Av.  paesa  'leprosy,'  Old  Pers.  -niadyas,  Phi.  pcsak, 
New  Pers.  j;e5.  Gab.  j)Is/i,  Afy.^e5(ai),  Kurd.  pis{aj). 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  133 

s  >  cli. 

§  411.     The  change  of  s  to  cli  is  a  very  rare  one. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sudhd  '  ambrosia,'  Prak.  chuM,  Pali  sudlid. 
Skt.  sird  '  vein,'  Prak.  c/ura,  sird,  Pali  sird.  Skt.  sidradlidra 
'  carpenter,'  Ur.,  Bang.  cJmtdr  (pron.  sutdr).  Skt.  sihcati 
'sprinkles,'  Prak.  simca'i,  Pali  sihcati,  Bihari  cMmcdi,  slmcdi, 
Mar.  simcanem. 

s  >  j{Ji). 

§  412.     The  change  of  s  to  j{h)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  haiiisa  'goose,'  Prak.,  Pali  hamsa,  Hindi 
hams,  Sindhi  liamj{Ji)ii,  Sirhh.  has. 

s  >  t 

§  413.     Tlie  change  of  s  to  ^  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sax^'drj  'word,'  Phi.  saxun.  New  Pers. 
suxiin,  Siv.  tuxtm,  Kas.  suxan.  Gr.  Kopos  '  satiety,'  New  Pers. 
ser,  Kurd,  ter  (Justi,  Kurd.  Gramm.  64,  compares  also  the  Av. 
uTT.  Xey.  ddfairi,  Yt.  x,  14). 

s  >  th,  6. 

§  414.     The  change  of  s  to  th,  6,  occurs  frequently  only  in  Old 
Persian. 

to.  Iranian.  Av.  suxra  'red,'  Old  Pers.  Quxra,  Phi.  suxr, 
New  Pers.  surx,  WaxI  sdkr,  Afy.  stir,  Bal.  suhr,  sohr,  Kurd,  sor^ 
Dig.  Oss.  surx,  Tag.  sirx.  Gr.  Kopos  'satiety,'  Av.  ddtairi,  etc. 
(?  see  preceding  §). 

s  >  d. 

§  415.     The  change  of  s  to  d  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  salmsra  'thousand,'  Prak.,  Pali  sahassa, 
Kasm.  sds,  Bihari  sahasar,  Sindhi  sahasu,  Simh.  dahasia,  das, 
ddJia  (d  for  5  by  false  analogy  with  Simh.  dahaya  '  ten,'  Skt 
dasan,  etc.). 


134  INDO'IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


S  >  V. 

§  416.     The  change  of  s  to  ?;  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  dasa  '  ten/  Kurd,  dav,  etc.  (see  §  410). 

s  >  s. 

§  417.  The  change  of  s  to  5  is  very  rare.  In  East  Hindi  5  is 
often  written  for  s,  although  s  is  retained  in  pronunciation.  This 
lax  writing  is  very  frequent  in  GujaratI  and  in  Marathi  most  of  all 
(cf.  §§  395,  400).  The  change  of  s  to  s  is  regular  in  Magadhi, 
Ardliamagadhi,  and  Sakari  Prakrit,  and  the  Avantika  Prakrit 
also  shows  numerous  examples  of  this  development. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vilasa  '  coquetry,'  Mag.  Prak.  vilase,  Mahar. 
Prak.,  Pali  vilasa.  Skt.  sabhika  'keeper  of  a  gambling-house,' 
Mag.  Prak.  sahia.  Skt.  anusasana  '  instruction,'  Prak.  (inscrip- 
tions of  Kapur  di  Giri)  anusasana,  Mahar.  Prak.  anusasana, 
Pali  anusasana. 

s  >  s. 

§  418.  The  change  of  s  to  5,  apart  from  the  regular  develop- 
ment in  Old  Indian  of  s  from  s  after  f,  u,  r,  e,  o,  is  extremely 
rare. 

a.  Indian.  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Kapur  di  Giri)  uyanasi  'in 
a  garden,'  beside  uyanasi  (inscriptions  of  Dhauli,  Jaugada, 
Khalsi).     Skt.  hhavisyasi  'thou  wilt  be,'  Gatha  hliesyasi. 

s  >  §. 

§  419.     The  change  of  Iranian  s  to  s  is  not  frequent. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  sana  '  whetstone,'  New  Pers.  san,  afsdn, 
dialectic  sdn,  WaxI,  Sarq.  j)asdn.  Av.  suha  'needle,'  Plil. 
sucan,  Paz.  suzan,  sozan,  New  Pers.  sozan,  Gab.  sajan,  Zaf  sozo, 
Wax!  sic,  Sarq.  sic,  Bal.  si'icin,  sicln,  N.  Bal.  stsin,  sisan,  sisin, 
Kurd,  suzin,  suzin.  Skt.  sakrt  '  excrement,'  Afy.  yo-sdJc,  yd- 
§oe,  N.  Bal.  sayan.  Av.  susi  '  lung,'  Phi.  sus,  New  Pers.  sus. 
Gab.  sus,  Afy.  sayai. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  135 

S  >  2. 

§  420.     Tlie  change  of  5  to  ^  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  siiirya  'breakfast,'  Plil.  siir^  New  Pers. 
surnai  *  trumpet,'  Tat  zurnai.  Av.  pasu  '  cattle,'  Paz.  pali,  Tat 
pas,  WaxI  j)w5,  pos,  Sarq.  jp(i)a5,  Afy.  psa,  Bal.  pas,  N.  Bal. 
phas,  Kurd,  pas,  Dig.  Oss.  fuss.  Tag.  _^55.  Av.  x^asnra  '  father- 
in-law,'  New  Pers.  xusur,  WaxI  xurs,  Afy.  5xr<r,  N.  Bal.  vasarih, 
Kurd,  xaziir,  xazir,  xaur. 

s  >  h. 
§  421.  Tlie  change  of  Indian  5  to  h,  wliich  is  very  similar  to 
the  Iranian  li  developed  from  Indo-Germanic  5,  where  the  Old 
Indian  retains  s,  occurs  quite  frequently  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
The  change  is  regular  in  South-Eastern  Bangali  (e.  g.  Bang,  salial 
'all,'  S.-E.  Bang,  hahal),  and  it  occurs  very  frequently  in  Panjabl, 
Sindhi,  and  Simhalese.  Iranian  5  becomes  h  only  internally  in 
Middle  and  New  Persian. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  divasa  'day,'  Prak.  divaJia,  diaha,  Saur., 
Jaina  Prak.,  Pali  divasa,  Mar,  divas,  Siihh.  davaha,  davasa.  Gyp. 
dives.  Skt.  ehasaptati  'seventy-one,'  Kasm.  aJcasatath,  Ur. 
eJcastori,  Bang,  ekdttar,  Biharl  cJcahatfar,  Hindi  iJcahattar,  Panj. 
ihhattar,  Sindhi  cJcahatari,  Guj.  ikoter,  Mar.  eJcaliattar,  cf.  Jaina 
Prak.  hattari  'seventy,'  Simh.  hdttdva,  scittdva.  Skt.  karpdsa 
'cotton,'  Panj.,  Sindhi  Jcapah,  etc.  (see  §  410).  Skt.  sarpa 
'  serpent,'  Prak.,  Pali  sappa,  Ur.,  Bang,  sdpa,  Hindi  samp,  Panj. 
sapp,  Sindhi  sapu,  Guj.,  Mar.  sap,  Simh.  hapu,  sapu,  sap{d). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kasu  '  small,'  Paz.  kah.  New  Pers.  kih,  etc. 
(see  §  410).  Av.  dasa  '  ten,'  Phi.  dalmni.  New  Pers.  dali,  etc. 
(see  §  410).     Av.  pasu  '  cattle,'  Paz.  pah,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

Aphaeresis  and  syncope  of  s. 

§  422.     The  loss  of  initial  or  internal  s  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sldati  'sits,'  Prak.  siai,  sadai,  Pali  sidati, 
Simh.  imd'inavd,  himdinavd.  Skt.  x)rasdda  'favour,'  Mahar. 
Prak  pasdya,  Pali  pasdda,  Simh.  pdya. 


136  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  x^'asura  '■  father-in-law,'  Kurd,  xaiir^  xasfir, 
xazlr,  etc.  (see  §  420). 


s  =  s. 
§  423.     Iranian  s  remains  in  general  unchanged  in  the  Middle 
and  New  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  savaiti  'goes,'  Old  Pers.  asiyavam,  New 
Pers.  Sudan,  Bahb.  sud,  Waxi  cauam,  Siyn.  sdvum,  Sarq.  som, 
Afy.  sval,  Bal.  suta,  N.  Bal.  suM,  su6a,  Kurd,  clan,  cim,  Oss. 
caun.  Av.  gaosa  '  ear,'  Old  Pers.  gausa,  Plil.,  New  Pers.  gos, 
Sir.,  Bahb.  gus,  Nay.  gus,  Waxi  yiis,  yis,  Siyn.,  yiiz,  Sarq.  yaul, 
Yidg.  yii,  Afy.  yvaz,  Bal.  gos,  Kurd,  guh.  Dig.  Oss.  yos.  Tag. 
qus.     Av.  raesah  '  wound,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  res,  Afy.  r«s. 

s  >  c,  c. 
§  424.     The  change  of  s  to  c,  c,  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  savaiti  'goes,'  Waxi  cauam,  Kurd,  cian, 
cun,  Oss.  caim,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

s  >  j. 
§  425.     The  change  of  s  to  j  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  taesaza  'physician,'  Phi.  hejask,  hijasJc, 
hesazdk.  New  Pers.  hijish,  hizWc. 

s  >  I. 
§  426.     The  change  of  s  to  Z  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gao§a  'ear,'  Sarq.  yaid,  etc.  (see  §  423). 
Av.  spis  '  louse,'  Phi.  S2)is,  sjnis.  New  Pers.  su])us,  uspus,  supus, 
Waxi  sis,  Sarq.  spal,  Afy.  sjpaza,  Kurd,  sipi,  aspe,  Oss.  sisth. 

s  >  s. 
§  427.     The  change  of  ^  to  5  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  savaiti  '  goes,'  Bahb.  stid,  Siyn.  scivum,  Sarq. 
som,  etc.  (see  §  423).  Av.  susi  '  lung,'  Phi.  sus.  New  Pers.  sus, 
Gab.  sus,  Afy.  sayai.  New  Pers.  sMr  '  salt,'  Siv.  sur,  Bal.  surag, 
N.  Bal.  wray,  so/*.     Av.  gao^a  '  ear,'  Dig.  Oss.  yos.  Tag.  gws. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  137 

s  >  ^. 
§  428.     The  change  of  s  to  ^  occurs  very  seldom. 

b,  Iranian.  Plil.  selmm  'belly,'  New  Pers.  slJcam,  iskani, 
Kurd,  sil:  Av.  xsvas  '■  six,'  Phi.  sas{uni),  New  Pers.  sas,  Waxi 
sab,  sal,  Siyn.  xaiis,  Afy.  spa^,  Oss.  axsaz. 

s  >  L 
§  429.     The  change  of  5  to  i  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gao§a  'ear,'  Siyn.  yiiz,  Afy.  yva£,  etc.  (see 
§  423).  Av.  ardsa  '  bear,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  xirs,  Maz.  as,  Siyn. 
yfirs,  Sarq.  yiirx,  Yidg.  yars,  Afy.  yaz,  Kurd,  hirs,  hire,  virc,  Oss. 
ars.    Av.  Jcusaitl  '  kills/  Phi.  kustano.  New  Pers.  kustan,  Kurd. 

§  >  h. 
§  430.     Tlie  change  of  s  to  h  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  res{ah)  'beard,'  New  Pers.  ns{ah),  Citrall 
rixi^,  rikis,  WaxI  rSyis,  Minj.  yarza,  Afy.  zira,  Kurd,  reli,  ri, 
Dig.  Oss.  rexe,  Tag.  rixt. 

Apocope  of  s. 
§  431.     The  loss  of  final  s  occurs  occasionally  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gaosa  '  ear,'  Yidg.  yil,  etc.  (see  §  423).  Av. 
spis  '  louse,'  Kurd,  sipi,  aspe,  etc.  (see  §  426). 


z  =  z. 
§  432.     Iranian  z  remains  in  general  unchanged  in  the  Middle 
and  New  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  zanu  '  knee,'  Phi.  zdnilk,  New  Pers.  zdnu, 
WaxI  zdn,  Sarc^.  ziin,  Sangl.  zong,  Afy.  zangun,  cangiin,  Bal. 
zdn,  Kurd,  zdna,  aznoli.  Av.  zordbaya  'heart,'  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
(Ill,  Maz.  zilah,  Gil.  zil,  Siyn.  zrdb,  zrdy,  Sarq.  zdrd,  Sangl. 
uzrdy,  Minj.  ztl,  Afy.  zra,  Bal.  zirdP,  Kurd,  zar,  Oss.  zarda. 
Av.  maezdnti  'they  make  water,'  Phi.  mezlfano,  New  Pers.  tnczl- 


138  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

dari,  Afy.  mltal,  Bal.  mlsay,  mezay,  Kurd,  mlztin,  mtstin,  Dig. 
Oss.  mczun,  Tag.  tmzin.  New  Pers.  i)d3  '  part  about  the  nose,' 
Gab.  imZj  Sangl.  fuzih,  Minj.  foska,  Afy.  poza,  paza^  Bal.  pd{n)z, 
N.  Bal.  phonz,  Kurd.  j?o^,  jpw^,  Dig.  Oss.  y^wja,  Tag.  fing. 

z>j. 
§  433.     Tlie  change  of  z  to  j  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  zanva  '  chm,'  New  Pers.  zanax,  Siyn.  zmgu, 
Sarq.  zangdn,  Afy.  Jawa,  ^awa.  Afy.  Joe  '  son '  beside  zoe  (from 
-/^aw  '  to  be  born  '). 

z  >  s. 

§  434.     The  change  of  ^  to  s  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ddrdza  '  bond/  New  Pers.  dm-z,  Oss.  daras 
'  garment.' 

z,  z  >  s. 

§  435.     The  change  of  z,  z  to  s  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  Jcdzah  '  hunter's  hut,'  beside  hdzali^ 
lid  sail. 

z  >  L 

§  436.     The  change  of  ^  to  i  is  found  occasionally. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  zimo  'of  winter,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  zam^ 
WaxI  zam,  Siyn.  zimj,  zinj,  Sarq.  zamdn,  Afy.  zwiai,  zimal, 
jimai,  Dig.  Oss.  zuniag,  Tag.  zimag. 

z  >  h. 
§  437.     Tlie  change  of  ^  to  h  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hdzu  '  arm,'  Plil.  hdzlli,  hdzah,  New  Pers. 
hdzu,  Gab.  hdJ,  Ka§.  hu'i,  hoM,  hohU,  Siv.  hdl,  Xor.  hdJm,  Judaeo- 
Pers.  hdhtil. 

Syncope  of  z. 
§  438.     Tlie  loss  of  internal  z  occurs  very  rarely  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hdzu  '■  arm,'  Gab.  hdl,  Kas.  hu'i,  hoM,  holm, 
Siv.  hdl,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  139 

§  439.  Iranian  i  is  in  general  retained  unchanged  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  duzali  '  hell,'  Phi.  dosax,  Paz.  dozax,  New 
Pers.  dozax,  Afy.  dozax,  domx,  doyas,  Bal.  dozak,  dose,  N.  Bal. 
domx,  doze,  Kurd,  diize.  Av.  duzaka  '■  leech,'  Phi.  zuzak,  New 
Pers.  zidali,  Gab.  jujih. 

z  >  y. 

§  440.     The  change  of  i  to  y  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian,  Av.  duzali  '  hell,'  Afy.  doyas,  dozax,  dozax,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §). 

z  >j. 

§  441.     The  change  of  z  to  j  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  duzaka  '  leech,'  Gab.  jujik,  etc.  (see  §  439). 

z  >  s. 

§  442.     The  change  of  i  to  s  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  diizah  '  hell,'  Plil.  dosax,  etc.  (see  §  439 — 
properly  speaking,  no  change  of  i  to  s  occurs  here,  since  Pahlavi 
possesses  no  sign  for  z,  and  employs  the  character  for  s  instead). 

z  >  z. 

§  443.  The  change  of  i  to  ^  is  the  most  common  one  of  all 
those  changes  to  which  Iranian  z  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  duzah  '  hell,'  New  Pers.  dozax,  Afy.  dozax, 

dozax,  doyas,  Bal.  dozak,  doze,  N.  Bal.  dozax,  doze,  etc.  (see 

§  439).  

h  =  k 

§  444.  Indian  h  is  in  general  preserved  imchanged  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects,  and  Iranian  h  (corresponding  to 
Indian  s)  is,  in  like  mamier,  retained  in  most  cases  in  the  Middle 
and  New  Iranian  dialects. 


140  JNDO-IEAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  hasfa  '  hand/  Priik.,  Pali  haftha,  Ass.  lmt[h\ 
KLasm.  ath,  Ur.  liat(li)a,  Bang,  licit,  Biharl,  Hindi  Imth,  Panj. 
liatth,  Sindhi  Jmthu,  Guj.  JicitJi,  Mar.  hat,  Simh.  afa.  Skt. 
hrdaya  'heart,'  Prak.  hia{y)a,  Pah  hadaya,  Ass.,  Ur.,  Biharl 
7<ia,  Hindi  hiyd,  Panj.  hiyani,  hiaiim,  Sindhi  Imhamu,  Mar. 
/<?■?/?/«,  liiyem.  Skt.  maliargha  '  costly,'  Pah  maJiaggha,  Ass. 
mahamgd,  magar,  Naip.  mahamgo,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  maJiamgd, 
Panj.  maJiinigd,  Sindlil  mahamgd,  Guj,  momghmh.  Mar.  malidg. 
Skt.,  Prak.,  Pali  Zo/^a  'iron,'Ur.  ?(57«a,  Zw/<a,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj. 
ZoM,  Guj.,  Mar.  Zo/i,  Sindhi  to/Mt. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  haena  'army,'  Old  Pers.  haind,  Phi.,  Paz. 
7ww.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  Jiama  '  all,'  Phi.  hamah,  Paz.  hamd,  New 
Pers.  hamah,  Bal.  hama{7c),  Kurd,  hamil.  Av.  /jajjfa  '  seven,' 
Pill.,  New  Pers.  /^a/f,  WaxI  huh,  hub,  ul),  vilvd,  Siyn.  vuvd,  Sarq. 
«v^,  Sangl.  ^a/if,  Minj.  cb,  Yayn.  av,  Afy.  ova,  ava,  Dig.  Oss.  a/5f, 
Tag.  aft,  avd.  Old  Pers.  6ura-vdhara  ^  May,'  Phi.  vahdr,  New 
Pers.  hahdr,  Ka§.  hohor,  vor,  Oss.  valjag. 

h  >  Jc. 

§  445.     The  change  of  /i  to  Zc  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hintdla  'kind  of  palm,'  Pali  kintdla,  Simh. 
Jcitul,  hitul. 

h  >  Jih,  X. 

§  446.  The  change  of  h  to  lili,  x,  is  not  infrequent  in  the  Iranian 
dialects,  where  it  occurs  more  usually  initially  than  internally  or 
finally. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  huSka  '  dry,'  Old  Pers.  usha,  Phi.  xusk{lh), 
New  Pers.  xusJc,  Siv.  fusJi,  Kas.  husJuidan,  uskudan,  WaxI  vasJc, 
Yidg.  il^k,  Afy.  vuc,  Bal.  husk,  Kurd.  vu§uk,  Oss.  xusk.  Av.  hu 
'pig,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  xiik,  WaxI  a;%,  Sarq.  xaug,  Afy.  a;%, 
Bal.  /iiA',  N.  Bal.  7^^a:;,  Kurd,  rcw,  Oss.  xui.  Av.  7iac^M  'bridge,' 
Sarq.  yaiO,  Yayn.  ifZ;,  Dig.  Oss.  xed.  Tag.  ;rld  Av.  du^ah  'hell,' 
Phi.  dosax,  Paz.  dozax.  New  Pers.  dozax,  Afy.  dozax,  dornx, 
doyas,  Bal.  cZo^aA;,  tZo-s'e,  N.  Bal.  dozax,  doze^  Kurd.  cZwie. 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  141 

h  >  C. 
§  447.     The  change  of  h  to  c  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  Jianicu  'as/  Siv.  camcah  (assimila- 
tion). 

h  >ph,f. 
§  448.     The  change  of  h  to  2)\  f,  is  very  rare,  and  it  seems  to 
occur  only  initially. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  husJca  '  dry,'  Siv.  fusJc,  etc.  (see  §  446). 

h  >  hh. 

§  449.     The  change  of  Ji  to  l)h  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vdiJiara  nom.  prop.,  Jaina  Prak.,  Pali 
vebhara. 

h  >  V. 
§  450.     The  change  of  h  to  v  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  lia])ta  '  seven,'  WaxI  vuvd,  {h)uh,  Jiiib,  Siyn. 
vuvd,  etc.  (see  §  444).  Av.  Jiuska  '  dry,'  WaxI  vasJc,  Afy.  vuc, 
Kurd.  vusuJc,  etc.  (see  §  446). 

h  >  7j,  i. 
§  451.     The  vocahzation  of  h  to  y,  i,  occurs  but  seldom. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  tnah  '  month,'  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
mdJb,  WaxI  miii,  Siyn.  tnast,  Sarq.  mds,  Minj.  yoniya,  Afy.  7nai, 
Dig.  Oss.  may  a,  Tag.  mai 

h  >  s. 
§  452.     The  change  of  h  to  s  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sndihika  '  oily,'  Pali  snesika  (but  Pali  s[i)neha 
'love,'  Skt.  sncJia). 

h  >  s. 
§  453.     The  change  of  h  to  s  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tidmaJi  '  homage,'  Phi.  namdc,  Paz.  nanid^, 
New  Pers.  namdz,  Afy.  nmunj,  Bal,  namds,  navds,  Kurd.  nimU, 
nimi. 


1J:2  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

h  >  2,  z. 

§  454.     Tlie  change  of  h  to  z^  z,  is  extremely  rare, 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ndmah  'homage,'  Paz.  namaz,  New  Pers. 
namdz,  Kurd,  nimiz,  nimJ,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

Apliaeresis  of  h. 

§  455.  Tlie  loss  of  initial  h  is  excessively  rare  in  the  Indian 
dialects.  In  the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  other  hand,  the  phe- 
nomenon is  not  infrequent. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hasta  '  hand,'  Kasm.  ath,  Simh.  ata,  etc. 
(see  §  444). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hanjamana  '  assembly,'  Plil.  anjaman,  lian- 
jaman,  New  Pers.  anjuman.  Av.  hapta  '  seven,'  WaxI  ub,  hub, 
huh,  vilvd,  Sarq.  iivcl,  Minj.  eb,  Yayn.  ay,  Afy.  ova,  ava,  Dig.  Oss. 
aft.  Tag.  aft,  avd,  etc.  (see  §  444).  Av.  huska  '  dry,'  Old  Pers. 
uska,  Kas.  ushidan,  huskudan,  Yidg.  iisk,  etc.  (see  §  446).  Av. 
haca  *  from,'  Old  Pers.  haca,  Phi.  aj,  New  Pers.  az,  z{i),  Afy. 
j;  Bal.  ac,  as,  Kurd,  az,  z{a). 

Syncoim  of  h. 

§  456.  The  loss  of  internal  h  is  very  rare  in  the  Indian  dialects, 
although  it  is  more  frequent  in  the  New  than  in  the  Middle  period. 
The  phenomenon  occurs  more  often  in  the  Iranian  than  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ihaloka  '  tliis  world,'  Prak.  (Shahbazgarhi 
inscriptions)  ialoka.  Skt.  hrhaspati  nom.  prop.,  Prak.  haJiap- 
phal,  hhayapphal,  hihapxjhai,  huliapplial,  huhappal,  hahassai, 
hahappai,  hhaassai,  hhuajjphal,  buhaspadl,  Ur.  biphdi  'Thursday,* 
Bihari  biphdi,  bihaphdi.  Skt.  gehini  'woman,'  Prak.  glmrinl, 
Simh.  gdni,  girini.     Skt.  vrihi  '  rice,'  Pali  vihi,  Simh.  v'l. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  vohuni  'blood,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  xiin,  Siv. 
fin,  Waxi  vuxan,  Siyn.  vixin,  Sarq.  vaxln,  Sangl.  vain,  Aiy. 
vine,  Kurd.  xm.  Phi.  dahisn  'gift,'  New  Pers.,  Gab.  ddsn. 
Old  Pers.  Oura-vahara  '  May,'  Kas.  vor,  bohor,  etc.  (see  §  444). 


SINGLE  CONSONANTS  143 

Apocope  of  li. 

§  457.     Tlie  loss  of  final  h  occurs  but  rarely. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ndniah  'homage,'  Kurd,  nimi,  nimiS,  etc. 
(see  §  453). 

ProtJiesis  of  7i. 

§  458.  Prothetic  h  is  not  uncommon  in  the  Middle  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects.  In  the  New  Indian  dialects  it  occurs  but 
rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  idanim  '  now/  Prak.  (Shahbazgarhi  inscrip- 
tions) hidalOkika,  lit.  Prak.  ddni{7h).  Skt.  cdrsa  'of  that  kind,' 
Prak.  crisa,  (inscriptions  of  Khalsi)  liedisa.  Skt.  atra  'there,' 
Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Khalsi)  lieta,  Bang,  hotha,  otha.  Skt. 
osilia  'Hp,'  Prak.,  Pah  ottlia,  Ur.  otha,  Bang.  Jio{m)th,  Hindi 
otUth,  Panj.  JiomfJi,  Guj.  hot,  oth,  Mar.  omth. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  aedrapaiti  'fire-priest,'  Plil.  inscriptions 
ehrpat,  lit.  Phi.  herpat,  crpat,  New  Pers.  htrhud.  Av.  aosah 
'  death,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  Ms.  Av.  aspa  '  horse,'  Old  Pers. 
as{p)a,  Phi.,  New  Pers.  asj),  Tat  as,  WaxI  7jas,  Minj.  yasap,  Afy. 
as,  Bal.  haps,  aps,  Kurd,  hasp,  Dig.  Oss.  afsa,  Tag.  yafs. 

Epenthesis  of  h. 

§  459.  Epenthetic  h  is  extremely  rare  both  in  the  Indian  and 
in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mdna  '  measure,'  Ur.  mahana,  Hindi  man, 
Mar.  man. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  jya  'bow-string,'  Paz.  jlTc,  New  Pers.  zih, 
Kas.  yah,  Sa,  A£y.  sal,  N.  Bal.  jiy,  Kurd.  hh. 


CONSONANT-GEOUPS 

§  460.  In  the  sections  dealing  with  vowels  and  single  conso- 
nants, similarity  of  development,  both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the 
Iranian  dialects,  has  been  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  In 
the  following  paragraphs  differences  will  be  found  more  often 
than  resemblances.  Comparatively  few  consonant-groups  have  de- 
veloped in  the  same  way  in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 
The  Indian  languages  have  continued  the  tendency  already  observ- 
able in  the  Middle  Indian.  The  component  sounds  of  consonant- 
groups  are  assimilated,  and  the  resulting  repeated  consonant  is 
either  retained,  or  one  of  the  letters  is  dropped  with  compensatory 
lengthening  of  a  preceding  short  vowel.  In  the  Iranian  languages, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  consonant-group  is  in  the  majority  of  instances 
softened  as  a  whole,  and  this  secondary  consonant-group  may  be 
retained  without  further  change  in  the  New  Iranian  dialects. 
As  a  result  of  these  developments  with  principles  which  are 
radically  different,  consonant-groups  in  Iranian  are  less  easy  to 
systematize  than  those  in  the  Indian  languages.  For  the  Indian 
dialects  the  classification  of  Beames,  Com])arative  G^'amniar,  i.  281- 
282  (cf.  359-360),  into  the  '  strong,  weak,  and  mixed  nexus '  is 
admirable.  But  since  in  the  Iranian  dialects  the  consonant-group 
is  softened  and  retained  instead  of  being  simplified,  such  secondary 
consonant-groups  are  subject  to  many  tertiary  developments. 
Moreover,  it  will  be  seen  in  many  instances  noted  in  the  following 
paragraphs  that  the  component  consonants  of  a  consonant-group,  in 
the  Middle  and  New  Iranian  dialects,  may  each  be  modified  accord- 
ing to  the  changes  to  which  they  are  liable  as  single  consonants. 

The  essential  difference  in  the  treatment  of  consonant-groups  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects  renders  the  discussion  in 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  145 

the  present  chapter  less  satisfactory  in  results,  in  some  respects, 
than  has  been  the  case  with  the  consideration  of  the  vowels  and 
single  consonants.  On  the  other  hand,  it  will  not  be  without 
interest  to  note  how  two  closely-related  members  of  the  same 
language-group  agree  in  general  in  certain  parts  of  their  phono- 
logy, but  at  the  same  time  are  radically  different  in  other  portions 
of  it.  Notwithstanding  this,  the  divergent  developments  of  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  languages  are  no  less  instructive 
than  their  coincident  changes,  and  a  survey  of  disagreement  as 
well  as  of  agreement  is  absolutely  necessary  if  a  correct  knowledge 
of  the  entire  subject  under  discussion  is  to  be  gained. 

7d  >  k{Jc). 
§  461.     The  assimilation  of  Jet  to  ]c{k)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  utJcantJia  'anxiety,'  Prak.  ukJcanthd,  Pali 
ukJcanthati  '  regrets.'  Skt.  muMa  '  released,'  Prak.  mukka,  Pali 
mukka,  mutta. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  sakta  '  able,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  saxt^  Yidg. 
sukt,  Bal.  sak. 

M  >gd,  yd. 
§  462.    The  softening  of  the  consonant-group  kt  to  gd,  yd,  is  not 
common. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.    nakta    'night,'   WaxI   nayd.      Skt.    takta 
.   'swift,'  Oss.  thayd. 

ktz  >  yZ,  Zy. 
§  463.     The  assimilation  of  kts  to  y^,  ^y,  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  suxta  'bm-ned'  +  ^arawya 'gold,' Dig.  Oss. 
suysarina,  Tag.  sizyarin. 

kt  >  t{t). 
§  464.     The  assimilation  of  kt  to  t{t)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hhakta  'boiled  rice,'  Prak.,  Pali  hJiatta, 
Kasm.  lata,  Ur.,  Bang.,  E.  Hindi,  W.  Hindi  dMt,  Panj.  hhatt, 

L 


146  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Sindhi  hhatu,  Guj.,  Mar.  hhdt  Skt,  miikta  '■  pearl,'  Prak,,  Pali 
muff  a,  Ur.  inoti,  Bang,  mofi,  mati,  mdnldiha^  muJcta,  Hindi, 
Panj.,  Sindhi,  Guj.  niotl.  Skt.  ralcta  'red,'  Prak.,  Pali  ratta, 
Ur.,  Bang.  raJcta,  Hindi  rat,  Sindlil  raid,  Guj.  rdtu,  Siihh.  rat. 

b.  Iranian.  Plil.  puxtano  '  to  cook,'  New  Pers.  puxtan,  Kas. 
j)atun,  2)dtan,  WaxI  ])6cam,  Afy.  paxavulj  Bal.  iMcag,  N.  Bal. 
phasay,  Kurd,  pdtin,  Dig.  Oss.  ficun,  Tag.  ficin.  Phi.  soxtano 
'  to  burn,'  New  Pers.  soxtan,  Mag.  sm^,  Gil.  swf,  suxt,  Tal.  5i7f, 
Afy.  5e^a7,  sejal,  svajavid,  Bal.  sucag,  N.  Bal.  susay,  Kurd,  so^iw, 
Bohtani  suhtin,  Dig.  Oss.  sojun,  Tag.  5oJi>2^. 

Z;^  >  p7<f,  /^. 
§  465.     The  assimilation  of  Jet  to  2jM,  ft,  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  yuxta  '  joined,'  Phi.  juxt  '  paii-,'  New  Pers. 
juft,  Afy.  juxt,  Kurd,  cuxt  New  Pers.  anjiiftan  'to  be  wrinkled ' 
beside  anjuxtan. 

Jet  >  Jit. 
§  466.     The  assimilation  of  Jet  to  Jit  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  paJcta  'cooked,'  New  Pers.  p>uxtaJi,  WaxI 
post,  Siyn.  past,  Sarq.  jiaxt,  Bal.  paJda,  N.  Bal.  paJita,  Dig.  Oss. 
funx(tli).  Tag.  fixtJi.  Phi.  soxtano  '  to  bm-n,'  Bohtani  suhtin,  etc. 
(see  §  4C4). 

A;^/-  >  ?^^,  Ix. 
§  467.     The  assimilation  of  Jdr  to  ?Z:^,  Za:,  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  hdxtri  nom.  prop.,  Phi.  Ijaxr,  New 
Pers.  halx. 

Jctr  >  Jir. 
§  468.     The  assimilation  of  Jctr  to  Jir  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  haxbra  'portion,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  haJir, 
harx. 

JctJi  >  {t)tJi. 
§  469.     The  assimilation  of  JdJi  to  {i)tJi  is  not  common. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  siJdJia  'beeswax,'  Prak.,  PaU  sittJia,  Hindi 
sltJi,  sltJi,  Panj.  setJi,  set,  Mar.  sit.  Skt.  saJctJii  'thigh,'  Pali 
sattJii. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  147 

Jen  >  nn. 

§  470.     The  assimilation  of  kn  to  nn  is  the   regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sdhnoti  '  is  able,'  Prak.  saJiJca'i,  Pali  sahJcati, 
sakTioti,  sakhundti,  Hindi  sakj  Sindhl  sagh,  Guj.,  Mar.  sak. 

km  >  m{m). 

§  471.     The  assimilation  of  km  to  on^m)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject. 

a.  Indian.     Skt,  riikmavatl  '  sort  of  metre,'  Pali  rummavati. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ^staxma  '  firm '  (cf.  Av.  sfaxra),  Phi.  sitah- 
mak,  New  Pers.  sitam  '  violence.'  Av.  taoxman  '  seed,'  Old 
Pers.  tmima,  Phi.  toxm,  New  Pers.  tuxm,  Gab.  turn,  Nay.  tum, 
Wax!  taym,  Siyn.  tUyni,  Sarq.  toym,  Yidg.  tilyum,  Afy.  tOma, 
Bal.  tilm,  torn. 

km  >  gm,  ym. 
§  472.     Tlie  softening  of  the  consonant-group  km  to  gm,  ym,  is 
not  frequent. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  taoxman  '  seed,'  WaxI  taym,  Siyn.  tuym, 
Sarq.  toym,  Yidg.  tiiyimi,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

§  473.     The  assimilation  of  km  to  p{p)  is  excessively  rare, 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  rukminl '  Laksmi,'  Prak.  rupirbn. 

ky  >  k{k). 
§  474.     The  assimilation  of  ky  to  k{k)  occurs  occasionally. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  canakya  nom.  prop.,  Prak.  cdnakka.  Skt. 
autsukya  'zeal,'  Pali  ussukka.  Skt.  trdilokya  'the  three  worlds,' 
Prak.  tellokka,  telokka. 

kr  >  k{k). 
§  475.    The  assimilation  of  kr  to  k{k)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indian 
dialects. 

L  2 


148  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cakra  '  wheel,'  Priik.,  Pali  cakJca,  Ass.  cdk, 
Ur.  caka,  Bang.  caM,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  cdk,  Panj.  caJch,  Sindhi 
caku,  Guj.,  Mar.  caJc,  Simh.  sale,  hah  Skt.  djhacakra  '  mystic 
circle  of  the  body,'  Simh.  inscriptions  anasak,  anasat 

kr  >  r{r). 
§  476.    The  assimilation  of  kr  to  r{r)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  suxra  *  red,'  Phi.  suxr,  New  Pers.  surx,  Siv. 
sir,  Kas.,  Kuhr.  sUr,  WaxI  sokr,  Siyn.,  Sarq.  slrah,  Yidg.  surkuJi, 
Afy.  silr,  Bal.  siihr,  sohr,  Kurd.  sOr,  Dig.  Oss.  surx,  Tag.  sirx. 

kr  >  hr. 
§  477.     Tlie  assimilation  of  kr  to  Jir  is  not  common. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  caxra  '  wheel,'  New  Pers.  carx,  cahrah,  Kas. 
cora,  clr,  Oss.  calx.  Av.  suxra  '  red,'  Bal.  suhr,  sohr,  etc,  (see 
preceding  §). 

kl  >  l{l). 
§  478.     The  assimilation  of  kl  to  l{l)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  klisfa  '  sick,'  Prak.,  Pali  kiliWia,  Simh. 
leda. 

kv  >  k{k). 
§  479.     The  assimilation  of  kv  to  k{k)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Bkt.  j^akva  'ripe,'  Prak.  ^^kka,  pikka,  Palipakka, 
Ass.  pakd,  Naip.  pdk,  Kasm.  papi,  Ur.  pakka,  Bang,  pdka, 
E.  Hindi  ^?rt7ta?,  Hindi,  Panj.  ^;aZ:Z;a,  Sindhi  ^aZ^o,  Guj.  Vpik,pak 
'  to  ripen,'  Mar.  ptk,  pika,  Gyp.  pako. 

ks  >  k{k). 
§  480.     The  assimilation  of  ks  to  k{k)  is  excessively  rare  in  the 
Iranian  dialects  as  well  as  in  the  Indian  dialects,  excepting  Bangali, 
Gujarati,  and  Marathl. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  huhhuksd  '  hunger,'  Pali  hubhukkhati,  Hindi 


CONSONANT- GROUFS  149 

IMlJi,  Sindhi  hnl-hd,  Mar.  Wml',  Gyp.  Ijohh.  Skt.  Icsira  '  milk,' 
Prak.  Jvh'ira,  cMra,  Pali  kJnra,  Kaf.  ^?f,  New  Ind,  dialects  khtr, 
Simh.  Jiiri,  Jcira,  Maladive  kiru. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ma.rsi  'fly,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  magas,  Siv., 
Judaeo-Pers.  magaz^  WaxI  mahs,  Minj.  miiya,  Afy.  mac,  Bal. 
walasA;  magisJc,  N.  Bal.  mahislc,  Kurd.  ^ni^. 

Ics  >  Wi. 
§  481.     The  assimilation  of  liS  to   Ichh  is  the   regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects.     In 
the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  maksila  '  fly,'  Prak.  macchid,  Pali  maMhiJia, 
Kasm.  Qiiach  (pron.  mas),  Ur.  md{m)chl  (vulgar  pron.  md{m)st), 
Bang,  mdclii,  E.  Hindi  md{m)chi,  Hindi  malcl-lil,  md{m)lxhi,  Panj. 
mahkJiij  Sindhi  makhi,  Guj.  makhi,  Mar.  maJdu,  mdsl,  Gyp. 
maliln.  Skt.  daksina  '  southern,'  Prak.  dakkJiina,  ddliina,  Pali 
dakkhina,  Kasm.  daclian,  Ur.  ddhind,  ddlidna,  Bang,  dain, 
E.  Hindi  dachin,  Hindi  dakliin,  ddhind,  Panj.  dakkhan,  Sindhi 
dakhino,  Mar.  ddkMn.  Skt.  2^ctksa  '  wing,'  Prak.,  Pali  pakkha, 
Kasm.  pakh{a),  E.  Bang.  ^>d/w,  Bang,  pdkln,  Biharl  pamkh 
'  wing,'  pdlilm  '  beside,'  paihclil  '  bird,'  Hindi  pakhl,  pdmchi, 
Panj.  pdmchi,  Sindhi  pamgu,  Guj.  pdmchi,  Mar.  pdJcJi,  pdmcht, 
Simh.  pak,  pasa,  Gyp.  phak. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  xsap{an)  'night,'  New  Pers.  mh,  Kas.  sav, 
Siyn,  sa&,  Sarq.  xah,  Minj.  a:sava,  ocasava,  Yidg.  xsuvuh,  Yayn. 
xisap,  Afy.  spa,  Bal.  saj),  Kurd,  sav,  Oss.  axsav. 

ks  >  Z;A.s,  xs. 
§  482.     The  assimilation  of  ks  to  /^/w,  ^5,  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  xsap{an)  '  night,'  Oss.  axsav,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

^•?  >  9{9)- 
§  483.     The  assimilation  of  ks  to  g{g)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  maxsi  '  fly,'  Phi.,  New  Pers,  magas,  Siv., 
Judaeo-Pers.  magaz,  Bal.  magisk,  makask,  etc.  (see  §  480). 


150  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

hs  >  c{c). 

§  484.     Tlie  assimilation  of  hs  to  c{c)  is  excessively  rare  both  in 
the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ksudra  '  small,'  Prak.  Jihiidda,  Pali  Jchudda, 
Ur.  Jchiidata,  Bang.  Ihiida,  Old  Simh.  cudi,  Simh.  Jciida,  Icudu. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  ^j.saj)acara  'bat,'  Bal.  sapcar,  Makranl 
caiKol  (assimilation). 

liS  >  {c)ch. 

§  485.     The  assimilation  of  Zs  to  {c)ch  is  not  infrequent  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rJcsa  '  bear,'  Prak.  riccha,  rilJcha,  Pali  accha, 
ikka,  is{s)a,  Ur.  riclia,  Biharl  rich,  nJJi,  Hindi  rich,  Panj.  ricch, 
Sindhi  richu,  Guj.  rich,  Mar.  ris.  Skt.  mahsila  'fly,'  Prak. 
macchia,  Kasm.  mach  (pron.  mas),  Ur.  ma{m)chl  (vulgar  pron. 
md{ni)si).  Bang,  niacin,  E.  Hindi  ma{ni)chl,  etc.  (see  §  481).  Skt. 
Tisetra  '  field,'  Prak.  chetta,  Pali  Jchetta,  Kasm.  Jch'it.  Skt.  Isa- 
triya  '  warrior,'  Prak.  hhattia,  Pali  Ichatiiya,  Ur.  chetri,  Biliarl, 
Hindi,  Panj.  chatrl,  khatri,  hhetri,  Sindhi  khitn,  Mar.  Txsatri. 

^  >  J:  ij)jh. 

§  486.     The  assimilation  of  Is  to  j,  {j)jh,  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Isina  '  wasted,'  Prak.  jhma,  ]chma,  china, 
Pali  khma,  khinna,  Ass.  jm  '  decay,'  Hindi  jhm,  cchin,  Sindhi 
jhino,  Gyp.  khino.  Skt.  ksiyate  'wastes  away,'  Prak.  jhijja'i, 
Mar.  jVi?;'.     Skt.  ksamd  '  earth,'  Hindi  jhcimd  '  vitrified  brick.' 

Z-.S  >  s{s). 

§  487.     Tlie  assimilation  of  ks  to  5(s)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  iksu  '  sugar-cane,'  Prak.,  Pali  ucchu,  Ur. 
dkhu,  Bang,  dku,  E.  Hindi  iikh,  W.  Hindi  ikli,  Mar.  ^75.  Skt. 
f/sa  '  bear,'  Mar.  rts,  etc.  (see  §  485).  Skt.  maksika  'fly,'  Kasm. 
mach  (pron.  *hos),  Ur.  md{m)chi  (vulgar  pron.  md{m)si),  etc.  (see 
§  481).     Skt.  imksa  '  wmg,'  Siihh.  j)asa,  imk,  etc.  (see  §  481). 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  151 

Skt.  hsana  '  instant,'  Prak.  I'hana,  chana  '  feast,'  New  Ind. 
dialects  A7iaw,  excepting  Hindi  khanj  chan,  chin,  Siiiih.  sdnaj 
san{d)a,  inscriptions  scindd. 

hs  >  s{s). 
§  488.    The  assimilation  of  Is  to  s{s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  languages. 

b.  Iranian.  Old  Pers.  xsdijadiya  '  king,'  Paz.,  New  Pers.  sdh. 
Av.  xsira  'milk,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sir,  Minj.  xslr,  Dig.  Oss. 
axsir.  Tag.  axsir.  Av.  xsap{an)  '  night,'  New  Pers.  sah,  Kas. 
sav,  Siyn.  sab,  Afy.  sjia,  Bal.  sap,  Kurd,  sav,  etc.  (see  §  481). 

/.•.9  >  h{h). 
§  489.     The  assimilation  of  Jcs  to  h{h)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  sdihsa  '  novice,'  Jaina  Prak.  seha,  Pali  seh- 
Jiha,  seJiha.  Skt.  palisa  '  wing,'  E.  Bang,  pdhl,  Bihari  pdhim 
'  beside,'  pamchl  '  bird,'  pamlh  '  wing,'  etc.  (see  §  481).  Skt. 
daksina '  southern,'  Prak.  ddliina,  dakkhina,  Ur.  ddJund,  ddhdna, 
Hindi  ddhind,  dakhin,  etc.  (see  §  481). 

ks  >  2{z). 
§  490.     The  assimilation  of  ks  to  ^[z)  is  excessively  rare. 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  ksiro,  '  milk,'  Kaf.  zu,  etc.  (see  §  480). 

Aphaeresis  of  ks. 
§  491.     The  loss  of  initial  /i-.9  is  a  very  rare  phenomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ksdra  '  potash,'  Prak.  chdra,  Pali  khdra, 
cJidrika,  New  Ind.  dialects  khdr,  excepting  Sindhi  chdru,  Simh. 
alu,  halii,  Maladive  hulu. 

ksn  >  n,  n. 
§  492.     The  assimilation  of  ksn  to  n,  n,  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  raoxsna  '  shining,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  rosan, 
Siyn.  rosnaga,  Sangl.  rosnai,  Afy.  run,  Bal.  rosam,  Kurd,  ron, 
run,  ruhndi,  rund{hji. 


152  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Jcsn  >  sn. 
§  493.     The  assimilation  of  Ixsn  to  sn  is  very  rare. 

b.    Iranian.      Av.  raoxsna  'shining,'  Siyn.  rosnaga,  Sangl. 
rd§nai,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

Jcsn  >  Jin. 
§  494.     The  assimilation  of  km  to  7m  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  raoxsna  '  sliining,'  Kurd,  ruhndi,  runa{h)i, 
ran,  riin,  etc.  (see  §  492). 


gdh  >  t{t). 
§  495.     The  assimilation  of  gdh  to  t{t)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  diigdlia  '  milk,'  Prak.,  Pali  duddha,  Naip.  dilf, 
Kasm.  dod,  Ur.  dudha,  Bang,  dudh,  dud{ii),  Biharl,  Hindi  diidli, 
Panj.  diidd,  Sindhi  dudhi,  Guj.,  Mar.  diidh,  Gyp.  thud. 

h.  Iranian.  Skt.  dogdhum  *  to  milk,'  Phi.  doxtano,  New  Pers. 
doxtan,  WaxI  hognam,  Sarq.  haumm,  Afy.  Ivasal,  Bal.  dosay, 
Kurd,  dotin,  Bayazid  dothin,  Dig.  Oss.  docun,  Tag.  diwin. 

gdh  >  d{d). 
§  496.     Tlie  assimilation  of  gdh  to  d{d)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dugdha  '  milk,'  Kasm.  dod,  Bang.  dud{u), 
dudh,  Panj.  dudd,  Gyp.  thud,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

gdh  >  ddh. 
§  497.     The  assimilation  of  gdh  to  ddh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dugdha  'milk,'  Prak.,  Pali  duddha,  Ur. 
dudha,  Bang,  dudh,  dud{u),  Bihari,  Hindi  dudh,  Sindhi  dddhi, 
Guj.,  Mar.  diJdh,  etc.  (see  §  495).  Skt.  mugdha  'fool,'  Prak., 
Pali  muddha. 

gn  >  g{g),  y. 

§  498.  The  assimilation  of  gn  to  g(g),  y,  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects,  but  it 
is  excessively  rare  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 


CONSONANT-  GEO  UPS  153 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  agni  'fire,'  Prak.  aggi,  aggini,  gini,  Ur.  wia, 
Bang,  dgim,  Hindi  ag,  Panj.  agg,  Sindhi  agl,  Guj.,  Mar.  dg, 
Siihh.  gini,  Gyp.  ?/«(/.  Skt.  nagna  '  naked,'  Prak.,  Pali  nagga, 
Ur.  namgaldj  Bang,  nethtd,  Bihari  namg,  Hindi,  Panj.  namgd, 
Sindhi  iiamgo,  Guj.  ndgum,  Mar.  naggd,  nanigd,  Gyp.  nango  (cf. 
also  Kasra.  ncmrdv  '  to  strip ').  Skt.  ?«//»«  '  attached,'  Prak., 
Pali  ?a(/5fa,  Hindi  lagd,  lag,  Panj.  ?a^,  other  New  Ind.  dialects 
lag. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  raoyiia  'oil,'  Phi.  royan,  rd7can,PsiZ.  raogan, 
New  Pers.  royan,  Kas.  ruyan,  ro,  WaxI  ruyiln,  ruyn,  Sarq. 
ra2(72,  Sangl.  7-dy,  Kurd.  riin. 

gn  >  n{n). 
§  499.     The  assimilation  oi  gn  to  n{n)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  raoyna  'oil,'  Sarq.  raun,  Kurd,  rmi,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

Syncope  and  apocope  of  gn. 
§  500.     The  loss  of  internal  or  final  gn  occurs  with  the  utmost 
rarity. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  raoyna  '  oil,'  Kas.  ro,  ruyan,  etc.  (see  §  498). 

gm  >  m{m). 
§  501.     The  assimilation  of  gm  to  m{in)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  yiigma  'pair,'  Prak.  jumma,  jugga.  Skt. 
tignia  '  sharp,'  Prak.  thmna,  tigga. 

b.  Iranian.  GAv.  dgdmat  'assembled,'  YAv.  frdymaf,  Old 
Pers.  hagmatd.  Phi.  matano,  New  Pers.  dniudan. 

gy  >  9{(J)' 
§  502.     The  assimilation  of  gy  to  g{g)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   yogya  '  suitable,'  Prak.  jogga.  Pah   yogga, 


154  INDO-IBANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

New  Ind.  dialects  Jo^/.  Skt.  lagyati  (Nirukta,  iv.  10)  '  is  attached,' 
Prak.  lagga'i,  Pali  laggati,  Kasm.  Vlag,  Hindi  lag,  Panj.  lagg, 
Sindhi  lag,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  lag. 

gr  >  gig)- 

§  503.    Tlie  assimilation  of  gr  to  g{g)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
tliis  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  agra  'front/  Prak.,  Pali  agga,  Ass.  age, 
Naip.  aghi,  Ur.  dgn,  Bang.,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  age,  Panj.  aggu, 
Sindhi  aggo,  Gyp.  agor,  angle.     Skt.  vgagra  'crooked/  Prak. 

vagga.  

ghr  >  {g)gh. 
§  504.     The  assimilation  of  ghr  to  {g)gh  is  the  regular  one  to 
wliich  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.    slghra   '  swift,'   Prak.    siggha,   Pali   sigha, 

Bang.  (BurdwanI)  siggir,  Gyp.  sigo.     Skt.  vydglira  '  tiger,'  Prak. 

vagglia,  Pali  vyaggha,  Hindi  hcigh,  Sindhi  vdglm,  Mar.  vdgh, 

Simh.  vag. 

ghr  >  r{r). 

§  505.     The  assimilation  of  ghr  to  r{r)  is  sometimes  found. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tiyri  'arrow,'  Old  Pers.  tiyra,  Plil.,  New 
Pers.,  Bal.  tlr,  N.  Bal.  thlr,  Kurd,  tlriili). 


idk  >  fjg. 
§  506.     The  softening  of  tdh  to  7dg  occurs  not  infrequently  in 
the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pargatoJia  'bed,'  Prak.  pallamka,  Saur.  Prak. 
paliamka,  Pali  pallwidka,  pariyatdka.  Ass.  pdletog,  Naip.  2)alafdg, 
Ur.  palamh,  ^ang. pdldmg,  pCdamh,  ^\\\M\  palamg,pCilahl,  Hindi 
palamg,  Panj.  palamgh,  Sindhi  palatjgu,  Guj.,  Mar.  palamg, 
Anglo-Ind.  palanqidn.  Skt.  JcatgJcana  'bracelet,'  Prak,  Pali 
Jcanikana,  Ass.  haiogan,  Jcajghan,  Kasm.  hankdin,  kaiogum,  Ur., 
Bang,  kdmgan,  E.  Hindi  kamgan,  kamkan,  kdmkan,  Hindi 
kanigan,  kamlcan,  Panj.  kamgan,  Sindlil  kaioganu,  Guj.,  Mar. 
kamgan. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  155 

tj]d  >  mt. 

§  507.     The  assimilation  of  nlct  to  mt  occ-urs  occasionally  (cf. 
§  404). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  paioJcti  '  row/  Prak.,  Pali  pcmti,  Bilnlrl 
pamti. 

Tokli  >  k{h). 

§  508.     The  assimilation  of  tdhh  to  7c{h)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  snakhala  '  fetter/  Pali  samkhala,  Ass. 
siJcali,  Naip.  siJcri,Vr.  siJcuU,  Bang.  siJcal,  sihil,  E.  Hindi  si{yh)- 
Aar,  siJx{Ji)ar,  Hindi  silar,  siJial,  siJcJiar,  Panj.  sam()hm\  Sindhi 
songliard,  Guj.  scinighal,  Mar.  sa{i'n)lilial^  siJcrl. 

wMi  >  iQgh,  mgJi. 

§  509.     Tlie  softening  of  tdJJi  to  togh,  mg\  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  srtdliliala  'fetter/  Panj.  sanigJiar,  Sindhi 
saiDgharo,  Guj.  samghal,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

'^^9  >  gig)- 

§  510.     The  assimilation  of  idg  to  g{g)  occurs  but  rarely  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Idtdgala  'plough/  Prak.  lamgala,  namgala, 
Pali  ncoUgala,  Bang,  nmiigal,  Biharl  Imigal,  Mar.  ndnigar, 
Simh.  nagula,  nagala.  Skt,  laugi'da  '  tail/  Prak,  lamgula,  Siriih, 
ncfgal,  nakufa. 

b.  Iranian,  Av,  angusta  'toe/  Phi,  angust^  New  Pers. 
august,  Siv,  gus,  Kas,  unguss,  angus{t),  Maz,  angiis,  WaxI  yangl, 
Siyn.  angast,  Sarq,  iiigaxt,  Sangl.  ingit,  Minj.  angar,  Afy,  ^i<^«, 
Tag.  Oss.  angursth. 

f9g  >  idgh. 

§  511.     The  aspirization  of  w//  to  »9^/i  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  jcmgala  'desert/  Ass.  jaioglial,  Sin^i  jhmggti 
<*jcnjgJni,  other  New  Ind.   dialects  jamgal,  Old  Hindi  also 
jamgar,  Anglo-Ind.  jungle. 


156  INDO-IRAXIAN  mONOLOGY 

cell  >  sc{h). 

§  512.     The  dissimilation  of  cch  to  sc{h)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  gaccha  '  go ! '  Mag.  Prak.  gasca.  Skt. 
prcchati  '  asks,'  Mag.  Prak.  puscadi.  Skt.  ucchista  *  remnant, 
Sak.  Prak.  uschitta,  Pali  ucchittha. 

cy  >  c{c). 
§  513.     The  assimilation  of  cy  to  c{c)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.    acyuta   'firm,'   Prak.    acciida,   Pali   accutu. 

Skt.  cyavate  '  goes,'  Prak.  cavcvi,  Pali  cavati,  Ur.  cuihd,  Bang. 

cuan,  Hindi  ciina,  Panj.  cond,   Sindhi  cuhanu,  Mar.  cdvanem. 

Skt.  ucyate  'is  said,'  Mag.  Prak.  vuccadi,  Saur.  Prak.  viiccai, 

Pali  vuccati. 

cv  >  c{c),  v{c). 

§  514.     Tlie  assimilation  of  cv  to  c{c),  c{c),  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  cvant  '  how  many  ?  '  Phi.,  New  Pers.  cand, 
Waxi  cum^  cun,  Sarq.  cund,  Afy.  com{b)ra,  Bal.  cimt 


§  515.     The  assimilation  of  JM  to  g{g)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  yajha  '  sacrifice,'  Prak.  janna,  Saur.  Prilk. 
jahja,  Pali  yahna,  Ur.,  Bang,  jdga,  Old  Hindi  jajana,  jaja, 
jaggajagya,  Hindi  ja^,  Fanj.  jagg,  Sindhi  jagii,  Mar.  jdg. 

j>i  >  mj- 

§  516.  The  New  Indian  dialects,  with  the  exception  of  Sindhi, 
GujaratI,  and  Marathi,  regularly  pronounce  jh  as  gy,  although 
Uriya  and  Bangali  retain  jh  in  script.  In  GujaratI  jh  is  pro- 
nounced jh  or  dn,  and  in  Marathi  jh  is  pronounced  dny.  Sindhi 
usually  assimilates  jh  to  jj. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  jhdna  '  knowledge,'  Prak.  jd7ta,  nana,  Pais. 

Prak.  hdna,  Pali  jdna,  Ur.,  Bang,  jhdna  (pron.  gi-dno),  Hindi, 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  157 

Panj.  gyan,  Sindhi  Jawz*,  Guj.,  Mar.  jan.  Skt,  djha  'command,' 
Prak,  ana,  Pali  ahhd,  Hindi  agyHj  Panj.  ayia,  Sindhi  dyya^  Guj. 
dgnyd. 

J^  >jU)- 

§  517.     Tlie  assimilation  oi  jh  to  j{j)  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jndna  'knowledge,'  Prak.  jdna,  ndna,  Pali 
jdna,  Sindlil  jdnu,  Guj.,  Mar.  jdn,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt. 
sarvajha  'omniscient,'  Prak.  savvajja,  savmnnu,  Saur.  Prak. 
savvaPija,  Mahar.  Prak.  savvanmi,  Pais.  Prak.  sdvvanna. 

jib  >  n{h). 

§  518.     The  assimilation  otju  to  n{h)  is  very  rare, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sarvajna  '  omniscient,'  Pais.  Prak.  savvahna, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  vijndna  '  knowledge,'  Prak.  vinndnd, 
Pali  vinndna. 

jh  >  n{n). 

§  519.  The  assimilation  oijn  to  n{n)  is  found  quite  frequently. 
a.  Indian.  Skt.  vljhdna  'knowledge,  Prak.  vinn/kna,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §).  Skt.  rdjm  '  queen,'  Naip.,  Hindi  rani,  other 
New  Ind.  dialects  rdnt.  Skt.  djndcahra  '  mystic  circle  of  the 
body,'  Simh.  inscriptions  anasaJc,  anasat. 

jh  >  n{n). 

§  520.     The  assimilation  otjh  to  w(w)  occurs  but  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sarvajha  '  omniscient,'  Mahar.  Prak.  sav- 
vanmi, etc.  (see  §  517).  Skt.  jndti  'kinsman,'  Pali  hdti, 
Simh.  nH. 

jy  >  JU)- 
§  521.    The  assimilation  of  jy  to  j{j)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this   consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and   New  Indo- 
Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  rdjya  '  kingdom,'  Pali  rajja. 

b.  Iranian.     Phi.  jut  and  '  to  gnaw,'  New  Pers.  jdvldan,  Gab. 


158  TNDO-IRANTAN  PHONOLOGY 

jovddnuln,  Afy.  zovul,  zonal,  Bal.  jayag,  N.  Bal,  jay,  Kurd.  jUn 
(cf.  Old  Bulg.  zlvati,  Old  High  Germ.  Idmvan). 

jy  >  U)j^i- 

§  522.     The  assimilation  of  j?/  to  {j)jh  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  adhljya  'having  the  bow-string  taut/  Pali 
adejjha,  but  Skt.  jyd  '  bow-string,'  Pali  j{i)yd. 

jy  >  4^),  ^{^)- 
§  523.     The  assimilation  of  jy  to  z{z),  or  ^(i),  is  not  infrequent 
in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  jfdano  '  to  gnaw,'  Afy.  zovid,  zoyal,  etc. 
(see  §  521).  Av.  jya  '  bow-string,'  Paz.  jJk,  New  Pers.  sih,  Kas. 
sail,  ka,  Afy.  zai,  N.  Bal.  jfy,  Kurd.  zih. 

jv  >  JU)- 
§  524.    The  assimilation  oijv  to  j{j)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jvdld  *  flame/  Prak.,  Pali  jdld,  Ur.  jvalihd, 
Hindi  hdland,  Psinj.  jaland,  hdland,  Sindhi  jalanu,  hdranu,  Guj. 
jalavum,  Mar.  jalanem,  Simh.  dala. 

jv  >  {j)jh. 

§  525.     The  assimilation  oijv  to  {j)jh  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  jvalati    'flames,'   Apab.    Prak.  jaJa'i,   Prili 

jalati,  Ur.  jhalaJcand,  Sindhi  jhaRami,  Guj.  jhalalavum,  Mar. 

jhalaJcanem. 

jv  >  d{d). 

§  526.     The  assimilation  oi  jv  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.    Skt.  jmZa  '  flame,'  Simh.  dala,  etc.  (see  §§  524, 182). 

jv  >  h{h). 
§  527.    Tlie  assimilation  oijv  to  h{h)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jvdld  'flame,'  Hindi  hdland,  Panj.  hdland, 
jaland,  Sindhi  hdranu,  jalanu,  etc.  (see  §  524).  Skt.  jvara 
'fever,'  Prak.,  Pali  jara,  Sindhi  har. 


CONSONANT- GBOVPS  159 

iic  >  tog. 
§  528.     The  assimilation  of  nc  to  i9g  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tancista  *  most  narrow,'  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
tang^  Waxi  tang,  Sarq.  tong,  Afy.  tangayl,  Bal.  tank,  N.  Bal. 
thanax,  thanalJi,  Kurd.  tank. 

nc  >  c{c). 
§  529.     Tlie  assimilation  of  he  to  c(c)  occurs  very  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  j)ahcasata  'fifty,'  Prak.  pannasa,  Pali 
jpahhdsa,  pannasa,  Kasm.  pahcah,  Ur.  pacdsa,  Bang,  pamcasa, 
Bihari,  Hindi  pacds,  Panj.,  Sindhi  pamjdh,  Guj.  pacds,  Mar. 
pannds,  Simh.  panalia. 

he  >  j{j). 
§  530.     Tlie  assimilation  of  he  to  j{j)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.,  Pali  kimcikd  ^  key,'  Naip.  kumjt,  Kasm. 
7cuh0,  Ur.  kuji,  kumci,  kumjM,  Bang,  ktljt,  kump,  Hindi,  Panj., 
Sindhi  kuthji,  Guj.  kumet,  Mar.  kumji. 

he  >  hj. 
§  531.     Tlie  softening  of  he  to  hj  is  found  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kuhcild  'key,' Naip.  kimjl,  Bang.  ku{m)jJ, 
Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi,  Mar.  kumji,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  panea  'five,'  Plil.  j9awc.  New  Pers.  panj, 
Kas.  hanc.  Wax!  pdn.s,  Siyii.,  Sarq.  pin:^,  Sangl.  pan^,  Minj. 
pane,  Afy.  pinja,  Oss.  fonj,  fonj,  Kurd,  panj,  penj. 

he  >  h{h). 
§  532.     Tlie  assimilation  of  he  to  h{h)  occurs  but  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pahcdsata  'fifty,'  Prdi  pahhdsa,  pannasa, 
etc.  (see  §  529). 

he  >  n{n). 

§  533.     The  assimilation  of  he  to  n{n)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pahcdsata  '  fifty,'  Prak.  panndsa,  Pali  pan- 
nasa, pahhdsa,  etc.  (see  §  529). 


160  IK  DO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

nc  >  n{n). 

§  534.     The  assimilation  of  nc  to  n{n)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Sktpahcdsata  ^Mty,' Mar.pannas,Simh.panaha, 

etc.  (see  §  529). 

nc  >  s{s). 

§  535.    The  assimilation  of  nc  to  s{s)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  165). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  Mhcana  'gold/  Prak.  kahcana,  Pali  Jcah- 

cana,  Simh.  l-asun.     Skt,  ^^awca  'five/  Prak.,  Pali  jjawca,  Kasm. 

pane,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Bihari,  Hindi  ^jawc,  Panj.,  Sindhi  immj,  Guj., 

Mar.  panic,  Simh.  p)asa,  jyaJia,  Gyp.  pane. 

nc  >  li[h). 
§  536.     The  assimilation  of  he  to  h{h)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  panca  'five/    Simh.  palia,  pasa,    etc.    (see 
preceding  §  and  cf.  §  169). 

hj  >  md. 
§  537.     The  assimilation  of  hj  to  md  is  excessively  rare,  except- 
ing in  Siriihalese  (see  §  182). 

a.  Indian.      Skt.    ahjana   '  collyriima,'   Prak.    ahjana,    Pali 
ahjana,  Simh.  aihduna. 


49  >  gig)- 

§  538.     The  assimilation  of  dg  to  g{g)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hJiadga  'sword/  Prak.,  Pali  Magga,  Ur. 
Tihamda,  Bang.  hJiarag,  Hindi  kharag,  JcJidmd,  Sindhi  kliano, 
Guj.  hhdrum,  Mar.  khamd. 

dg  >  d{d). 
§  539.     The  assimilation  of  dg  to  d{d)  is  comparatively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kJiadga  '  sword,'  Ur.  khamdd,  Hindi  khdmd, 
kharag,  Guj.  klidrimi,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

dg  >  n{n). 
§  540.     Tlie  assimilation  of  dg  to  n{n)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  khadga  'sword,'  Sindhi  khano,  etc.  (see 
§  538). 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  IGl 

Vt  >  tit)- 
§  541.     Tlie  assimilation  of  nt  to  t{t)  is  found  occasionally. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hayitaka  'thorn/  Prak.  kantaa,  Pali  Jcan- 
t{h)aJca,  Ass.  Mmtl,  Naip.  kamra,  Kasm.  kond,  kund,  Ur.  kania, 
kamta,  Bang,  kdfa,  kamta,  Hindi  kdrhfa,  Panj.,  Sindhi  kariida, 
Guj.  kdnito,  Mar.  kdtd,  kdmfd,  Gyp.  kanro,  kando. 

nt  >  did). 
§  542.     Tlie  assimilation  of  nt  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kantaka  '  thorn,'  Naip.  kdfhrd,  Panj.,  Sindhi 
kdmdd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

nt  >  nd. 
§  543.     The  softening  of  nt  to  tid  occurs  quite  rarely. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kantaka  'thorn,'  Kasm.  kond,  kund,  Gyp. 
kando,  kanro,  etc.  (see  §  541). 

nth'  >  nt. 
§  544.     The  deaspirization  of  ntJi  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  suntJii  '  ginger,'  Kasm.  sont,  Ur.,  Bang. 
suntha,  Hindi  somtji,  Panj.  simdh,  somdh,  Sindhi  smidhi,  Guj. 
sunth. 

nth  >  ndJi. 
§  545.     The  softening  of  nth  to  ndh  is  the  most  usual  change  of 
all  those  to  which  this  consonant-group  is  subject. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sunthi  'ginger,'  Panj.  sundh,  somdh,  Sindhi 
snndhi,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

nd  >  d{d). 
§  546.     Tlie  assimilation  of  nd  to  d{d)  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  khandaka  'fragment,'  Kasm.  khadak,  Ur. 
khandd,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  khdmr,  Panj.  khdmdd,  Sindlil  khano, 
Guj.  khddimi.  Mar.  khandd,  khdmdd.  Skt.  dundidjJia  '  sort  of 
lizard,'  Pali  dedduhJia. 


162  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

nd  >  nd. 

§  547.     The  decerebralization  of  nd  is   not   a   frequent   phe- 
nomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  randa  '  window,'  Ass.,  Naip.  rdmri,  Ur., 
Bang.,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  rdmr,  Panj.  rand,  Sindhi  ran,  Guj., 
Mar.  rdmd. 

nd  >  n{n). 

§  548.     The  assimilation  of  nd  to  n{n)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  IhaiidaJca  'fragment,'  Sindhi  Jchano,  etc. 
(see  §  546).  Skt.  randd  '  window,'  Sindhi  ran,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §).  Skt.,  Pali  gandal:a  'rhinoceros,'  BLharl  ganm, 
gandd,  gdmdd. 

ndh  >  d{d). 

§  549.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  d{d)  is  not  common. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sandha  '  eunuch,'  Prak.  sandha,  Ass.  sdmr, 
Bang,  sdtkr,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  sdmr,  Panj.  sdmdh,  Sindhi  sdnu, 
Multanl  sdmh,  sandhd,  Guj.,  Mar.  sdmd. 

ndh  >  n{n). 
§  550.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  n{n)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sandha  'eunuch,'  Sindhi  sdnu,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

ndh  >  mr. 

§  551.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  mr  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  sandha  '  eunuch,'  Ass.  sdmr,  etc.  (see  §  549). 

ndh  >  mil. 
§  552.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  mh  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sandha  '  eunuch,'  Multanl  sdmh,  sandhd, 
etc.  (see  §  549). 

ny  >  nj. 
§  553.     Tlie  assimilation  of  mj  to  hj  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hrahmanya  '  Brahmanical,'  Saur.  Prak. 
vamhahja. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  163 

7iy  >  n{h). 

§  554.     The  assimilation  of  ny  to  n{n)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pimya  '  pure,'  Prak.  punna,  Pali  puhha, 
punna,  Sindhi  2^um.  Skt.  aranya  'desert,'  Prak.  ranna,  Pali 
arahha,  Hindi  raw,  Sindhi  rah,  rinu,  Guj.,  Mar.  ran. 

ny  >  n{n). 

§  555.     Tlie  assimilation  of  ny  to  n(n)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  punya  '■  pure,'  Prak.  punna,  Pali  pwma, 
puhha,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

ny  >  n{n). 

§  556.     The  assimilation  of  ny  to  n{n)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  aranya  '  desert,'  Hindi  ran,  Sindhi  rimi,  rah, 
Guj.,  Mar.  rein,  etc.  (see  §  554).  Skt.  Jiiranya  'gold,'  Prak. 
(inscriptions  of  Khalsi  and  Kapur  di  Giri)  liilamna,  Pali 
hirahha. 

nv  >  n{n). 

§  557.     The  assimilation  of  nv  to  n{n)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hanva  nom.  prop.,  Prak.  hanna.  Skt.  Jcinva 
'yeast,'  Pali  Jcinna,  Sindhi  Jiinu. 

nv  >  n{n). 

§  558.     Tlie  assimilation  of  nv  to  n{n)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Mnva  '  yeast,'  Sindhi  Idnu,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

tt  >  t(f). 

§  559.     The  cerebralization  of  tt  to  t{t)  is  in  the  great  majority 
of  cases  due  to  the  presence  of  a  preceding  r,  r. 

a,  Indian.  Skt.  vrtta  'happened,'  Prak.  vatta,  Pali  vatta, 
vatta.  Skt.  mrttilai  'clay,'  Prak.  maitid,  Pali  mattihd,  Ur., 
Bang,  mail,  Hindi,  Panj.  mitti,  mattz,  Sindhi  mitl,  Guj.  mdti, 
Mar.  mdtl.     Skt.  pattana  '  town,'  Prak.  pattana,  Pali  patiana. 

M  2 


164  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

tp  >iAp). 

§  560.     Tlie  assimilation  of  tp  to  p[ii)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  iifpadyante  'they  arise/  Prak.  lippajjamte, 
Pali  tippajjanti,  of.  Sindhi  upanu,  Guj.  upan{f/)o. 

tm  >  t{f). 

§  561.     Tlie  assimilation  of  tm  to  t{t)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  dtman  '  self/  Prak.  attd,  appd,  (inscriptions 
of  Girnar)  dptd,  Pali  attd,  dtmnd,  Ass.  dpu,  Naip.  d2)hu,  Kasni. 
j)dn,  Ur.,  Bang.  d2){e)j  dpana,  dpani,  Hindi,  Panj.  dp{an),  Sindhi 
pan,  Guj.  d}),  Mar.  dp{an). 

tm  >  pt. 

§  562.     Tlie  assimilation  of  tm  to  pt  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dtman  '  self/  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Girnar) 
dptd,  lit.  Prak.  attd,  appd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §  and  cf.  Pischel, 
Gramm.  d.  Prdk.-Spr.,  §  277). 

tm  >p{p>). 

§  563.     The  assimilation  of  tm  to  j9(j;)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dtman  'self/  Prak.  a2)pd,  attd,  (inscriptions 
of  Girnar)  dptd,  Ass.  djm,  Kasm.  2)(ili,  Ur.,  Bang.  dp{e),  dpana, 
dpani,  Hindi,  Panj,  dp{an),  Sindhi  pan,  Guj.  dp.  Mar.  dp{an), 
etc.  (see  §  561). 

ty  >  c{c). 
§  564.     The  assimilation  of  ty  to  c{c)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  satya  'true,'  Prak.,  Pali  sacca,  Ass.  samcd, 
(pron.  homsd),  Ur.  sacd.  Bang,  sdmcd,  sacd,  E.  Hindi  same, 
Hindi  same,  sa{m)e,  Panj.  sacc,  Sindhi  sacu,  Guj.,  Mar.  sdcum, 
Simh.  sasa,  Gyp.  caco.     Skt.  Jiatyd  '  murder,'  Sindhi  Jiacd. 


CONSONANT-  GROUPS  1 65 

fy  >  t{f). 

§  565.  Tlie  assimilation  of  ii/  to  t{t)j  while  less  frequent  than 
the  assimilation  of  fy  to  c{c),  is,  nevertheless,  not  uncommon  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian,     Skt.  iiifya  'constant,'  Priik.,  Pali  nicca,  Bihar! 

nit{t),  Sindhi  nitu,  Siriih.  nisadl,nisddl.    Skt.  aniatya  'minister,' 

Prak,,   Pali   amacca,   Siihh.   ameta,   ametiya.     Skt.  atyunnata 

'■  very  high,'  Jaina  Priik.  accunaya. 

fy  >  Sis). 

§  566.     The  assimilation  of  fy  to  s{s)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nifya  'constant,'  Siiih.  nisacli,  nisddl,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §).     Skt.  safya  '  true,'  Simh.  sasa,  etc.  (see  §  564). 

fr  >  c{c). 

§  567.     The  assimilation  of  fr  to  c{c)  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  imdra  '  son,'  Old  Pers.  pud^'a,  Phi.  2)Hs{a)% 
jniJtr,  New  Pers.  pus{ar),  pur,  Gab.  pur,  Kas.  piir,  piir,  Samn.  plr, 
WaxI  pofr,  Siyn.  puc,  Sarq.  poc,  Minj.  pur,  Yayn.  pulali,  N.  Bal. 
pJmsay,  Dig.  Oss.  furfh,  Tag.  Jirfh,  Kurd,  pisir. 

fr  >  tit). 
§  568.     Tlie  assimilation  of  fr  to  f{f)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jMfra  'son,'  Prak.  2)uf fa,  Saur.  Fvak.  pud{(l)a, 
Pali  pidfa,  Ur.  pua,  Hindi  pid,  Sindlil  pidru,  Lar.  X)nitu,  Mar. 
^tt^Z,  Simh.  pit,  put 

fr  >  fr. 

§  569.     The  assimilation  of  fr  to  fr  occurs  only  in  Sindhi. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  frinl  'three,'  Prak.  fimii,  Pali  tlni,  Kasm. 
frih,  Ur.  fini,  Bang,  fina,  Biharl  f'lni,  Hindi  tin,  Panj.  tinm, 
Sindhi  fre,  Guj.  tan.  Mar.  tin,  Gyp.  frin.  Skt.  sutra  '  tlii'ead,' 
Prak.,  Pali  suffa,  New  Ind.  dialects  sid,  excepting  Sindhi  sufru, 
Lar.  sidtu,  Simh.  swfa. 


166  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

tr  >  {t)th. 

§  570.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  {f)ili  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  ])ratliama])utra  '  first-born  son,'  E.  Hindi, 
Hindi  2^ahilamtJid,  Panj.  jiahildtlid.,  ^mdihl  palirdtho,  pahrdtii. 

tr  >  d[d). 

§  571.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  d{d)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.   Indian.     Skt.  putra  'son,'  Saur.  Prak.  piul{d)a^  etc.   (see 

§  568). 

tr  >  t{t). 

§  572.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  t{{)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  ratri  '  night,'   Prak.    ratti,  rai,  Pali  ratti, 

Kasm.,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Bihari,  Hindi  rat,  Panj.  ratt,  rat,  Sindhi  rati, 

Guj.,  Mar.  rat,  Simh.  rmja,  rd.  Gyp.  rat,  Span.  Gyp.  {a)raci. 

Skt.  hsctra  '  field,'  Prak.  cJietta,  Pali  hhetta,  Ur.,  Bang.  Tiheta, 

Hindi  Idiet,  hhedd,  Panj.  hhet,  Sindhi  Jchetu,  Guj.  kJicd,  Mar.  set, 

Sirhh.  Jceta.     Skt.  trimandala  '  Buddhist's  robe,'  Pali  tlmandala. 

Old  Siihh.  dunmnandul.  New  Simh.  tiiuniadidla.     Skt.  putra 

'  son,'  Prak.,  Pali  putta,  Hindi  put.  Mar.  putl,,  Simh,  pit,  pid, 

etc.  (see  §  568). 

tr  >  dr. 

§  573.      The  assimilation  of  tr  to  dr  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  6ri  '  three,'  Paz.  se.  New  Pers.  sih.  Tat  se, 
WaxI  triii,  Siyn.  arrai,  Sarq.  Jiaroi,  Sangl.  trdi,  Minj.  §arai, 
Yayn.  dara'i,  Afy.  dre,  Kurd.  se. 

tr  >  plir,  fr. 

§  574.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  phr,  fr,  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  draetaona  nom.  prop..  Phi.  fretiln,  Paz. 
frcdun.  New  Pers.  faredim. 

tr  >  r{r). 
§  575.     Tlie  assimilation  of  tr  to  r{r)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  puOra  '  son,'  New  Pers.  pur,  pus{ar).  Gab. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  167 

piir,  Kas.  pilr^  pilr,  Samn.  pJr,  Minj,  pilr,  etc.  (see  §  567).     Av. 
ciOra  '  bright,'  Plil.  citre,  New  Pers.  cihr,  Afy.  cer,  Kurd.  cdra. 

tr  >  1(1). 

§  576.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  l{l}  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pudra  '  son,'  Yayn.  pulah,  etc.  (see  §  567). 
Old  Pers.  Mt^paSdrij?,  Mi^ptoarrjs,  nom.  prop..  Phi.  initrdaf,  New 
Pers.  milad. 

tr  >  s{s). 

§  577.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  s(5)  is  quite  common  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  xmOra  '  son,'  Phi.  pHs{m%  pulir,  New  Pers. 
pus{ar)^  pur,  N.  Bal.  pJiusay,  Kurd,  pisir,  etc.  (see  §  567).  Av. 
6ri  '  tlu-ee,'  Paz.  se,  New  Pers.  sih,  Tat  5e,  Kurd,  se,  etc.  (see 
§  573).     Av.  padra  '  protection,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  j^cis. 

tr  >  s{s). 

§  578.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  s{s)  is  extremely  rare. 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  6ri  '  three,'  Minj.  sarai,  etc.  (see  §  573). 

tr  >  hr. 

§  579.     The  assimilation  of  tr  to  hr  is  common  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  puOra  '  son,'  Phi.  pulir,  pus{ar\  etc.  (see 
§  567).  Av.  ciQra  '  bright,'  New  Pers.  cihr,  etc.  (see  §  575). 
Av.  dri  '  three,'  Sarq.  haroi,  etc.  (see  §  573), 

Syncope  of  tr. 

§  580.     The  loss  of  the  consonant-group  tr  internally  is  a  very 
rare  phenomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ratri  'night,'  Prak.  rai,  rafti,  Simh.  rS, 
raya,  etc.  (see  §572).  Skt.  mitra  'friend,'  Prak.  mia,  mitta^ 
Pali  mitta,  Sindhi  mid. 


168  IXDO-JRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

tv  >  i{t). 
§  581.     The  assimilation  of  tv  to  i{t}  is  the  regular  one  under- 
gone by  this  consonant-group  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian 
dialects, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tvarita  'quick,'  Prak.  turia,  Pali  tnrita, 
Hindi,  Panj.  turanit,  Sindhi  turtu,  Guj.  turat,  Mar.  tunlt.  Skt. 
catvarah  '  fom-,'  Prak.  cattdra,  cailra,  Pali  catu,  Kasm.  cor,  Ur., 
Bang.,  Bihari  cdri,  Hindi,  Panj.  car,  Sindhi  cari,  Guj.,  Mar.  car, 
Old  SirhL  siv{ii).  New  Simh.  Jiatara,  satara,  Mr,  Gyp.  star. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  turn  <  *  tvdm  '  thou,'  Paz.  to,  New  Pers.  tu, 
Afy.  ta,  Kurd,  tu,  Dig.  Oss.  dii,  Tag.  di. 

tv  >  d{d). 
§  582.     The  assimilation  of  tv  to  d{d)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tilm  'thou,'  Dig.  Oss.  du,  Tag.  di,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

tv  >  2^{P)- 
§  583.  The  assimilation  of  tv  to  p{2i)  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
Indian  dialects,  especially  in  the  case  of  the  Old  Indian  suffix  -tva, 
which  generally  becomes  -jmn,  -}Kmu,  -jjund,  etc.,  in  the  New 
Indian  dialects.  In  the  Iranian  dialects  an  assimilation  of  tv  to 
p[p)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  V}'ddhatva  'old  age,'  Bang,  hudhdpana, 
hudhdpd,  Hindi  hudhdjMn,  Panj,  hudlmpd,  Sindhi  hudliapanu, 
Guj.  hucVhdpo. 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  caOwdro  'four,'  Phi.  calmr,  Paz.  cilidr.  New 
Pers.  cahdr,  WaxI  cdbur,  cahur,  Siyn.  cavor,  cavdr,  Sarq.  cavur, 
cavor,  Sangl.  safor,  Minj,  cafir,  Yidg.  cir,  Yayn.  tfo,  Afy.  calor. 
Dig.  Oss.  ciqypar,  cnpltphar.  Tag.  cippar,  ciplipliar. 

tv  >ph,f. 
§  584.     The  assimilation  of  tv  to  ph,f,  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  caOwdro  '  four,'  Sangl.  safor,  Minj.  caflr, 
Yayn.  tfo.  Dig.  Oss.  ciqipar,  cuphpliar,  Tag.  cippar,  ciphphar,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §). 


CONSONANT-  GEO  UPS  1 09 

tv  >  h{h). 
§  5S5.     The  assimilation  of  tv  to  hih)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  cadtvdro  '  four,'  WaxI  cabur,  cahilr,  etc.  (see 
§  583). 

tv  >  l{l). 

§  586.     Tlie  assimilation  of  tv  to  l{l)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  caQivaro  'four,'  Afy.  color,  etc.  (see  §  583). 

tv  >  v{v). 
§  587.     The  assimilation  of  tv  to  v{v)  is  found  occasionally  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  catvarali  'four,'  Old  Simh.  siv{u\  etc.  (see 
§  581). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  caSwdro  '  four,'  Siyn.  mvor,  cavdr,  Sarq. 
cavur,  cavor,  etc.  (see  §  583). 

tv  >  sp. 
§  588.     The  assimilation  of  tv  to  sp  is  very  rare. 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  Qivdsa  '  firmament,'  Plil.  spdsar. 

tv  >  h{h). 
§  589.     The  assimilation  of  tv  to  li{li)  is  quite  frequent  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  caOivdro  '  four,'  Phi.  calidr,  Paz.  cihdr^  New 
Pers.  cahdr,  etc.  (see  §  583).  Av.  frapidtva  '  flourishing,'  Phi. 
frapili,  farpih,  New  Pers.  farbili. 

Syncope  of  tv. 
§  590.     The  loss  of  the  consonant-group  tv  internally  is  a  very 
rare  phenomenon. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  cad  ward  '  four,'  Yidg.  clr,  etc.  (see  §  583). 

ts  >  c{c). 
§  591.     The  assimilation  of  ts  to  c{c)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.      Skt.  Inbhatsa  'loathsome,'  Pali  htbhacca.     Skt. 


170  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

vatsa  '  calf/  Prak,,  Pali  raccha,  Ass.  hacrit  (pron.  hasru),  Kasm, 
vac,  Bang.  haccM,  vaccM,  E.  Hindi  hdcJin,  W.  Hindi  hacd,  Panj. 
haccd,  Sindhi  baco,  Guj.  hacco,  Mar.  hacreni,  vdsrilm. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  vatsa  '  calf,'  Phi.  vacak,  hacak,  Wax!  vush, 
Sarq.  visJc,  Bal.  ^vac,  Kurd.  vacaM,  Dig.  Oss.  vass. 

^5  >  {c)ch. 
§  592.     The  assimilation  of  ts  to  {c)cJi  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vatsara  '  year,'  Prak.,  Pali  vacchara.  Skt. 
vatsa  '  calf,'  Prak.,  Pali  vaccha,  Bang.  vaccM,  laccha,  E.  Hindi 
hdchd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

ts  >  s{s). 
§  593.     The  assimilation  of  ts  to  s{s)  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  vatsa  '  calf,'  WaxI  viisk,  Sarq.  visl;  etc.  (see 

§  591). 

ts  >  s{s). 

§  594.    The  assimilation  of  ts  to  s{s)  is  found  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  utsuJca  '  anxious,'  Prak.  iissna,  Mahar.  Prak. 
zissuya,  Jaina  Prak.  ussuJca.  Skt.  vyutsarga  'eructation,'  Prak. 
viussagga.     Skt.  utsada  '  desire,'  Pali  ussada. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  vatsa  *  calf,'  Dig.  Oss.  vass,  etc.  (see  §  591). 

tsy  >  {c)c. 

§  595.     The  assimilation  of  tsy  to  {c)c  is  found  freqilfently  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  matsya  'fisli,'  Apab.  Prak.  macchu,  Pali 
maccha,  Ass.  mac  (pron.  mas),  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi  mach  (vulgar 
pron.  in  Bang,  maso),  Panj.  macch,  Sindlil  macJiu,  Mar.  tndsd, 
Siihh.  mas,  Gyp.  Diaco. 

tsy  >  {c)ch. 
§  596.     Tlie  assimilation  of  tsy  to  {c)ch  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  171 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  matsya  'fish/  Apab.  Prak.  macclin,  Pali 
inaccha^  Ur,,  Bang.,  Hindi  mach  (^nilgar  pron.  in  Bang,  waso), 
Panj.  macch,  Sindhi  machu,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

^5^  >  s{s). 

§  597.     Tlie  assimilation  of  tsy  to  s(5)  occurs  quite  frequently  in 
the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  matsya  '  fish,'  Ass.  mac  (pron.  mas),  Bang, 
vulgar  pron.  mctsu,  Mar.  masa,  Simh.  mas,  etc.  (see  §  595). 


th?/  >  {c)ch. 

§  598.     Tlie  assimilation  of  thy  to  {c)cli  is  the  regidar  one  to 

which  tliis  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.    Skt.  patliya  '  welfare,'  Prak.  paccha.     Skt.  mitJiya 

'false,'  Prak.  micchci,  Avant.  Prak.  onittha,  Pali  micchd,  Ass. 

mica,  Ur.   mich,  Bang.,  Old  Hindi  micJia,  Sindhi  mathyam, 

Siihli.  misa. 

thy  >  s{s). 

§  599.     The  assimilation  of  tJiy  to  s{s)  is  very  rare. 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  mithya   'false,'  Simh.  misa,   etc.   (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

dg  >  gig)' 

§  600.  The  assimilation  of  dg  to  g{g)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects,  but  it  is 
extremely  rare  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mudga  '  kidney-bean,'  Prak.,  Pali  mugga, 
Ur.  muga,  Bang,  mug,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  mumg,  Panj.  7m<gg, 
Multani  mumg,  Sindhi  muhn,  Mar.  milg.  Skt.  mudgara  '  ham- 
mer,' Prak.,  Pali  muggara,  Ur.  mogara,  Hindi  7nugard,  mOyard, 
Sindlil  mnnirO,  Guj.,  Mar.  mogar. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  madgu  '  cormorant,'  New  Pers.  may. 

dgh  >  g{g), 
§  601.     The  assimilation  of  dgh  to  g{g)  is  quite  rare. 


172  IXDO-IRAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  udghatayati  '  opens,'  Prak.  iiggdi,  nggJmda'i, 
Pali  nggJuitcti,  Ur.  ngand,  Sindhi  iigann,  Guj.  iigavmh,  Mar. 
■agavineni. 

dgJi  >  {g)gk 

^  602.     The  assimilation  of  dgh  to  {g)gh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  udglicdaijatl  'opens,'  Prak.  ugglidda'i,  Pali 
uggJidfeti,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  tidghOsa  'proclamation,' 
Pali  ugghusa. 

ddh  >  {f)th. 

§  603.     The  assimilation  of  ddh  to  {f)fJi,  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  suddha  '  pure,'  Pi'ak.,  Pali  suddlia,  Hindi 
sudhj  Sindhi  sufJiO. 

ddh  >  {dyih. 

§  604.   The  cerebralization  of  ddJt  is  caused  in  the  great  majority 
of  instances  by  the  presence  of  r,  r. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sraddhd  '  offering  to  the  dead,'  Prak.  saddhd, 
saddhd,  Pali  saddhd.  Skt.  vnldhi  '  gro\vth,'  Prak,  vuddhi,  Pah 
vitddhi,  vuddhi. 

dm  >  iH{m). 

§  605.     Tlie  assimilation  of  dm  to  )}i{))i)  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  nisem,  niseman  'resting-place'  < 
^nistdinan. 

dm  >  mn. 

§  606.     The  assimilation  of  dm  to  mn  is  extremely  rare. 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  hhinadmi  '  I  s^Dlit,'  Gatha  hhinanmi. 

§  607.    The  assimilation  of  dg  to  j{j)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vidyid  'lightning,'  Prak.,  Pali  vijju,  Ur. 
hijidl,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  hijali,  Sindhi  vi^um,  Guj.  vijuU,  Mar. 
h'tjali,  vlj.     Skt.  adga  ' to-day,'  Prak.,  Pali  ajja,  Ass.  dji,  Kaem. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  173 

aj,  a3,  Ur.,  Bang,  aj,  Old  Hindi  aju,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  tij,  Panj. 

ajj,  Sindhi  ajii,  Guj.,  Mar.  aj,  Siiiili.  ada.     Skt.  cZ^/w^i  'light,' 

Prak,  jui,  Pali  /w^i. 

dy  >  d{d). 

§  608.     The  atsimilation  of  dij  to  d{d)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  adija  'to-day,'  Simh.  ada,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding  §).     Skt.  vdidija  '  physician,'  Prilk.,   Pali  vejja,   Simh. 

dr  >  j{j). 
§  609.     The  assimilation  of  dr  to  j{j)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nidrd  '  sleep,'  Prak.,  Pali  niddd,  Hindi, 
Panj.  nlmd,  Sindhi  nimd,  Mar.  nlj,  n'ld,  Gyp.  lindr. 

dr  >  d{d). 
§  610.     The  assimilation  of  dr  to  d{d)  is  quite  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hsudra  '  small,'  Prak.  hhudda,  Pali  Ichudda, 
Ur.  hhudatu,  Bang.  JcJiudd,  Old  Sirhh.  czt^i,  Simh.  knda,  hudu. 
Skt.  dadru  '  ring- worm,'  Pali  daddu,  Hindi  dad,  Sindhi  darhu, 
dadhu,  Guj.  dddar,  Mar.  ddd,  dddad. 

dr  >  {d)dh. 
§  611.     Tlie  assimilation  of  dr  to  {d)dh  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dadru  'ring-worm,'  Sindhi  darhu,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

dr  >  d{d). 

§  612.    The  assimilation  of  dr  to  d{d)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nidrd  '  sleep,'  Prak.,  Pali  niddd,  Hindi, 
Panj.  mmd,  Mar.  md,  ntj,  etc.  (see  §  609).  Skt.  mudrd  '  seal,' 
Prak.,  Pali  muddd.  Skt.  drdJcsa  'grape,'  Kasm.  dach,  Hindi, 
Panj.  ddkh,  Sindhi  ddJch,  Gyp.  drakh. 

dr  >  l{l). 
§  613.     The  assimilation  of  dr  to  l{l)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  hhadra  '  good,'  Prak.  lliadda,  Pali  bhadra, 


174  JXDO-IRANJAN  PHONOLOGY 

hhadda,  Ass.  hhdl,  Ur.  hhala,  Bang,  hhdla,  Hindi,  Panj.  hludd, 
Sindhi,  Guj.  hhalO^  Mar.  hliald.  Skt.  cliidra  4iole/  Mahar. 
Prak.,  Pali  chidda,  Biharl  died,  Simh.  hila. 

dr  >  sr. 

§  614.     The  assimilation  of  dr  to  sr  is  exceedingly  rare. 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  xsudra  '  seed,'  Phi.  susar,  Gab.  sosr. 

dr  >  Jir. 
§  615.     The  assimilation  of  dr  to  lir  is  excessively  rare. 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  hahra  '  portion/  Phi.,  New  Pers.  hahr. 

dv  >  d{d). 

§  616.  The  assimilation  of  dv  to  d{d)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo- 
Jranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sddvala  'grassy,'  Pali  saddala.  Skt.  dvara 
'  door,'  Prak.  dfra,  dndra,  ddra,  hdra,  Pali  dvdra,  Ur.  dara, 
Sindhi  ddrii,  ddrl,  Guj.  bar,  Mar.  ddr,  Simh.  dera,  dora.  Skt. 
dvi  'two,'  Prak.  duve,  Pali  dvi,  Kasm.  ^ah,  Ur.,  Bang,  did,  Hindi, 
Panj.  do,  Sindhi  ha,  Guj.  he.  Mar.  don.  Skt.  dvlpa,  'island,' 
Prak.  diva,  Prdi  dijM,  Simh.  diva. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dvar  'door,'  Old  Pers.  duvard,  Phi.,  New 
Pers.  dar.  Gab.,  Kas.  har,  Samn.  harl,  Wax!  hdr,  Siyn.  dive{r), 
Sarq.  div'ir,  Minj.  lahra,  Afy.  var,  Kurd,  har,  Oss.  dvar. 

dv  >  h{h). 
§  617.     The  assimilation  of  dv  to  b{h)  is  frequent  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dvara  '  door,'  Prak.  hdra,  ddra,  dudra,  dera, 
Guj.  hdr,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  dvddasan  'twelve,'  Prak. 
hdraha,  Pali  hdrasa,  dvddasa,  Kasm.  hdh,  Ur.  hdra,  Bang,  hard, 
Biharl,  Hindi  hdrah,  Panj.  hdrdm,  Sindhi  harahani,  Guj.  hdr. 
Mar.  hard. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  175 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dvar  '  door,'  Gab.,  Ka§.  har,  Samn.  hart, 
WaxI  bar,  Kurd,  bar,  etc.  (see  §  616).  Skt.  dvesas  'enmity,' 
Av.  fbaesah,  Plil.  bcs. 

dv  >  v{v). 

§  618.     The  assimilation  of  dv  to  v{v)  is  comparatively  rare  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  udvestati  '  surrounds,'  Prak.  uvvella'L  [See 
now  Pischel,  Gramm.  d.  PraJc.-Spr.,  §  107,] 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  dvar  '■  door,'  Afy.  var,  etc.  (see  §  616). 


§  619.  The  assimilation  of  dhy  to  {j)jh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  madliya  '  middle,'  Prak.,  Pali  majjha,  Ass. 
mdj  (pron.  maz),  Kasm.  mamz,  Ur.  majhi,  Bang,  ntdjh,  Burh- 
vanl  madde,  Biharl  madJd,  Old  Hindi  maddlie,  Hindi  majhi, 
mdrnjh,  mdmh,  mdmjliold,  Panj.  mamjh,  majjh,  Sindhi  manijhu. 
Mar.  mdjh,  Elu  madii,  Simh.  mdda,  inscriptions  mdmda.  Gyp. 
maskare.  Skt.  upadhydya  'teacher,'  Prak.  u{v)ajjhda,  ojjJida, 
Pali  upajjhdya,  Biharl  pddhd,  Hindi  ojhd,  Sindhi  viijho.  Skt. 
budhyati  '  understands,'  Prak.  bujjha'i,  Pali  hujjhati,  Kasm.  bojl 
(pron.  bo^i),  Ur.  bujJiibd,  Bang,  biijhan,  Hindi  bujhand,  Panj. 
biijjhand,  Sindhi  bujhanu,  Guj.  bujavum.  Mar.  bujh.  Skt. 
dJiydna  '  meditation,'  Prak.,  Pali  jhdna,  Hindi  samajjhdnd. 

b.  Iranian.     Skt.  dhydna  '  meditation,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  jdn. 

dhy  >  d{d). 

§  620.     The  assimilation  of  dhy  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  madhya  '  middle,'  BurhvanI  7naddc,  Elu  madii, 
Simh.  md{m)da,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  vidhyati  '  pierces,' 
Pali  vijjhati,  Simh.  vidinavd. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.   mailya  'middle,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  miydn, 


176  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Wfixl  mailing,  Siyn.  mahdna,  Sarq.  mch,  Sangl.  m'lda,  Afy.  mid, 
Dig.  Oss.  mcdag,  Tag.  mJday. 

dhj  >  {d)dh. 
§  621.     The  assimilation  of  dJii/  to  (fZ)f?/i  is  extremely  rare, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mad/nja  '  middle/  Bihari  madid,  Old  Hindi 
maddhe,  etc.  (see  §  619). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  maibya  '  middle,'  Siyn.  mahdna,  Sarq.  ))ieb, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

dhj  >  y{y). 
§  622.     Tlie  assimilation  of  dhy  to  y{y)  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  inaidya  '  middle,'  Phi,,  New  Pers.  miydn, 
etc.  (see  §  620). 

fZA?/  >  l{l). 
§  623.     The  assimilation  of  dhy  to  Z(Z)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  maihya  '  middle,'  WaxI  mailing,  Afy.  mid, 
etc.  (see  §  620). 

dhy  >  s{2). 
§  624.     The  assimilation  of  dhy  to  z{3)  occurs  with  the  utmost 
rarity. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  madhya  '  middle,'  Ass.  mdz  (written  mdj), 
ELasm.  tnamz,  etc.  (see  §  619).  Skt.  hadhyati  '  understands,' 
Kasm.  hozl  (written  hojl),  etc.  (see  §  619). 

dhy  >  h{h). 
§  625.     The  assimilation  of  dJty  to  //(//)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  madhya  '  middle,'  Hindi  mdmh,  mdmjh{dld), 
mdmjh,  majhi,  etc.  (see  §  619). 

dhr  >  {j)jk 
§  626.     The  assimilation  of  dhr  to  {j)jh  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  grdhra  '  vulture,'  Prak.  giddha,  Pali  gijjha, 
gaddha,  giddha,  Bang,  gidh,  Hindi  gidh,  giddh,  Panj.  giddh, 
Sindhi  gijhu,  Guj.  g~id{h).  Mar.  gidli,  gid,  gidhad. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  177 

dhr  >  did). 
§  627.     The  assimilation  of  dhr  to  d{d)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  grdhra  'vulture,'  Guj.  gtd,  g'idh,  Mar.  gld, 
gtdh,  gidhad,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

dhr  >  {d)dh. 

§  628.     The  assimilation  of  dhr  to  {d)dh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhruva  'firm/  Jaina  Prak.  dhiiva.  Skt. 
grdhra  'vulture,'  Prak.  giddha,  Pali  gaddha,  giddha,  gijjha, 
Bang,  gidh,  Hindi  g'ldh,  giddh,  Panj.  giddh,  Guj.  gidh,  gld,  Mar. 
gtdh,  gidhad,  gid,  etc.  (see  §  626). 

dhv  >  {j)jh. 

§  629.     The  assimilation  of  dhv  to  {j)jh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhvaja  '  flag,'  Prak.  jhaya,  dhaya,  Hindi, 
Panj.  dhaja,  Guj.  dhajo,  Simh.  dada.  Skt.  madhvalu  'yam,' 
Pali  majjharu. 

dhv  >  d{d). 

§  630.     The  assimilation  of  dhv  to  d{d)  Is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhvaja  'flag,'  Simh.  dada,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

dhv  >  {d)dh. 

§  631.     The  assimilation  of  dhv  to  {d)dh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dhvaja  '  flag,'  Prak.  dhaya,  jhaya,  Hindi,  Panj. 
dhaja,  Guj.  dhajo,  etc.  (see  §  629).  Skt.  adhvan  '  road,'  Prak., 
Pali  addha. 


nt  >  t{t). 

§  632.     The  assimilation  of  nt  to  t{t)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  -ant  term,  of  pres.  part,  act.,  Prak.  -anta, 
Apab.  Prak.  -antu,  Saur.  Prak.  -ando,  Ass.  -omte,  Naip.  -ada, 
Kasm.  -an,  Ur.  -ant,  Bang,  -it,   E.  Hindi  -at.  Old  Hindi  -ant, 

N 


178  JNDO-IRANIAN  TIIONOLOGY 

Hindi  -ata,  Panj.  -a{n)da,   Sindhi  -ando,  Multani  -andd,  -enda, 
Guj.  -ato,  Mar.  -atd,  -at,  -it. 

nt  >  {f)fk. 
§  633.     Tlie  assimilation  of  nt  to  {t)th  is  not  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. 

a.  Indian.  Av.  dantan  'tooth,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  danddn, 
WaxI  dilnduJc,  Siyn.,  Sarq.  handdn,  Minj.  land,  Bal.  dantan, 
N.  Bal,  datJidn,  danthdn,  Kurd,  didun,  Tag.  Oss.  da)idag.  Av. 
hjrdsant  'high,'  New  Pers.  hidand,  Dig.  Oss.  harzantldlia  (plural), 
Tag.  harmththa. 

'    nt  >  d{d). 
§  634.     Tlie  assimilation  of  nt  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  -ant  term,  of  pres.  part,  act.,  Naip.  -ddci, 
Panj.  -add,  -andd,  etc.  (see  §  632). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dantan  '  tooth,' Kurd,  dlddn,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

nt  >  nd. 
§  635.     The  softening  of  nt  to  nd  is  very  common  both  in  the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  -ant  term,  of  pres.  part,  act.,  Saur.  Prak. 
-andd,  Panj.  -andd,  -add,  Sindhi  -andd,  Multani  -andd,  -endd,  etc. 
(see  §  632). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  dantan  'tooth,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  danddn, 
WaxI  dunduli,  Siyn.,  Sarq.  handdn,  Minj.  land,  Tag.  Oss. 
dandag,  etc.  (see  §  633).  Av.  jvant  '  living,'  Phi.  zlvandalc,  New 
Pers.  zindali,  Kas.  janda,  Afy.  ivand. 

nt  >  n{n). 

§  636.     The  assimilation  of  nt  to  w(w)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  -ant  term,  of  pres.  part,  act.,  Kasm.  -an,  etc. 
(see  §  632). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gainti  '  stench,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  gand,  Afy. 
ganda{l),  Kurd,  gannalc  '  castor-oil  plant.' 


CONSONANT-  GEO  UPS  1 79 

7ifr  >  nfr. 
§  637.     The  assimilation  of  nfr  to  nfr  is  confined  to  the  Sindlil 
(c£§569). 

a.  Indian.    Skt.  mantra '  incantation/  Sindhi  maniru,  mandru. 

ntr  >  ndr. 
§  638.     The  assimilation  of  nfr  to  ndr  also  is  confined  to  the 
Sindhi. 

a.  Indian.      Skt.     mantra    'incantation/    Sindhi    mandril, 

manfru. 

nfr  >  r(r). 

§  639.     The  assimilation  of  ntr  to  r{r)  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  fqOra  '  dark/  Phi.,  New  Pers.  tar,  Minj. 
taravi,  Afy.  tor,  Dig.  Oss.  thalinga,  Tag.  thaling. 

ntr  >  1(1). 
§  640.     Tlie  assimilation  of  ntr  to  l[l)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.    tqBra    '  dark/    Dig.    Oss.    thalinga,    Tag. 
thaling,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

nth  >  tit). 
§  641.     The  assimilation  of  nth  to  t{t)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  granfhi  'knot/  Prak.,  Ptili  ganthi,  Sindlii 
gamdhi,  ghumdi.  Mar.  ganifh,  Simh.  gdtaya. 

nth  >  mth. 
§  642.  Tlie  cerebrahzation  of  nth  is  of  very  miusual  occurrence. 
a.  Indian.  Skt.  granfhi  '  knot/  Prak.,  Pali  ganthi,  Mar. 
gamth,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  grantha  'book,'  Pali  ganfha, 
Ur.  gantha.  Bang,  gdmt,  gdmth,  Hindi  gdmfh,  Panj.  gamdh, 
gandh,  Sindhi  gamdh,  Guj.,  Mar.  gdmth,  Simh.  gata. 

nth  >  mdh. 
§  643.     The  assimilation  of  nth  to  mdh  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  grantha  '  book,'  Panj.  gamdh,  gandh,  Sindhi 
gamdh,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


1 80  INDO-IRANIAN  FHONOLOG  Y 

nth  >  t{f). 

§  644.     The  assimilation  of  nth  to  t{t)  is  exceedingly  rare, 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  grantha  '  book,'  Simh.  gata,  etc.  (see  §  642). 

nth  >  d{d). 

§  645.     The  assimilation  of  nth  to  d{d)  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pantaii  '  way/  Phi.,  New  Pers.  pand,  Siyn. 
puTid,  Sarq.  pand,  Sangl.  pandah,  Yidg.  paduh,  Dig.  Oss.  /and. 

nth  >  nd. 

§  646.     The  assimilation  of  nth  to  nd  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pantan  ^  way,'  Phi.,  New  'Pers.  pand,  Siyn. 
pund,  Sarq.  pand,  Sangl.  pandah,  Dig,  Oss.  fand,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

nth  >  ndh. 

^  647.     The  softening  of  nth  to  7idh  occurs  very  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pantha  'way,'  Prak.  pamtha,  Pali  pantha, 
Kasm.  paimth,  pdmth,  panth,  Siihh.  pandltu. 

ndr  >  ndr. 

§  648.     The  cerebralization  of  ndr  to  ndr  is  confined  to  the 
SindhT. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  candra  'moon,'  Prak.  canda,  camda,  Pali 
eanda,  New  Ind.  dialects  cdmd,  also  Kasm.  candar,  E.  Hindi 
can,  Hindi,  Panj.  camd,  Sindhi  camdu,  candrii,  Simh.  sanda, 
handa,  Maladive  ha{n)du.  Gyp.  con. 

ndr  >  nd. 
§  649.     The  assimilation  of  ndr  to  nd  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  candra  'moon,'  Prak.  canda,  camda,  Pali 
rjinda.  New  Ind.  dialects  cdmd,  also  Hindi,  Panj.  camd,  Simh. 
sanda,  handa,  Maladive  ha{n)du,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  181 

ndr  >  n{n). 

§  650.     The  assimilation  of  ndr  to  n{n)  is  extremely  rare, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  candra  '  moon/  E.  Hindi  can,  Gyp.  con,  etc. 
(see  §  648). 

ndh  >  t{t). 

§  651.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  t{t)  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  handdmi  *  I  bind,'  Phi.  hasfano.  New  Pers. 
hmidam,  Maz.  van{n)am,  Gil.  davaddam,  Waxi  vandam,  Siyn., 
Sarq.  vindam,  Bal.  handag,  Kurd,  handiin,  Dig.  Oss,  hattim,  Tag, 

§  652.     Tlie  assimilation  of  ndh  to  (i^)^7i  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  handdmi  'I  bind/  Tag.  Oss.  haththin,  etc. 
(see  preceding  ^). 

ndh  >  d{d). 

§  653.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  d{d)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  handdmi  '  I  bind/  Gil.  davaddam,  etc.  (see 

§  651). 

>Z(?7i  >  nd. 

§  654.   The  deaspirization  of  ndh  is  not  a  frequent  phenomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sicandha  '  shoulder/  Prak.,  Pali  hhandlia, 
Ass.  Jcdmd,  kdmdh,  Ur.,  Bang.  Jcdnidh,  Biharl  Tidmdhd,  kJidmdd, 
Hindi  Tidmdhd,  Panj.  handhd,  Jcamih,  Sindlil  Jcandhu,  Guj. 
JcJidmdo,  Mar.  Jchdrndd,  Siriih.  Tcanda. 

ndh  >  n{n). 

§  655.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  n{n)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  handdmi  '  I  bind/  Maz.  van{n)am,  etc.  (see 
§  651). 

ndh  >  {n)nh. 

§  656.     The  assimilation  of  ndh  to  {n)nh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sandhi  'friendship,  burglar's  mine,'  Prak., 
Pali  sandhi.  Ass.  sindhi,  Kasm.  san,  Ur.,  Bang,  simdh,  E.  Hindi 
senhi,  semdh,  Hindi  semdh,  Panj.  sannh,  Sindhi  semdhi,  Multanl 


182  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

sandh.  Skt.  sJcandha  'shoulder,'  Panj.  Jcannh,  Jcandhd,  etc.  (see 
§  654).  Skt.,  Pali  andliahara  'darkness,'  Hindi  amdhera, 
athdhfydra,  Panj.  annherd. 

ndhy  >  mj{j). 

§  657.     The  assimilation  of  ndhy  to  mj{j)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.    sandliyd    '  twilight, '    Prak.    samjhd,    Pali 

sahjhdj  Ur.  sdmjh,  Bang,  sdnij,  sdtiijh,   Biharl,  Hindi   sdmjh, 

Panj.   samjh,   Sindhi  scimjhl,   samjhfl,  Guj.   sdwj,  Mar.  sdmj, 

sdmjh. 

ndhy  >  m{j)jh. 

§  658.  The  assimilation  of  ndhy  to  m{j)jh  is  the  regular  one 
to  which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects, 
a.  Indian.  Skt.  sandhyd  'twilight,'  Prak.  samjhd,  Pali 
safijhd,  Ur.  sdmjh,  Bang,  sdmjh,  sdmj,  Biharl,  Hindi  sdmjh, 
Panj.  samjh,  Sindhi  samjhd,  samjhl,  Mar.  sdmjh,  sdmj,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §).  Skt.  handhya  '  barren,'  Pali  vahjha.  Ass.  hdmji, 
Ur.  hdmjha.  Bang,  hdmjhd,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  Idmjh,  Panj.  hahjh, 
Guj.,  Mar.  vdmjh. 

nm  >  mm. 
§  659.     The  assimilation  of  nm  to  mm  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  janman  '  birth/  Prak.,  Pali  jamma.  Skt. 
unmdrga  'underground  watercourse,'  Maliar.  Prak.,  Pali  um- 
magga. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  saena  mdrdya  'eagle-bird,'  Phi.  senmurv, 
New  Pers.  slmiiry. 

ny  >  nj. 

§  660.     The  assimilation  of  ny  to  nj  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kanyd  'girl,'  Mag.  Prak.  hahhahd.  Pais. 
Prak.  kahjd,  JcahhaM,  Pali  haSuid,  Panj.  Jcanid,  Sindlil  Jcahd. 

ny  >  n{H). 
§  661.     The  assimilation  of  ny  to  h{Pi)  is  extremely  rare. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  183 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Tianya  'girl,'  Mag.  Prak.  kamiaJca,  Pais. 
Prak.  JcahhaJcct,  Jcahja,  Pali  Jcahnd,  Sindhl  Jcaha,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §).  Skt.  ani/a  '  other,'  Prak.  ahha,  anna,  Pali  aSuia,  Old 
Hindi  ani,  Siihh.  aml:{ali),  amkek. 

nif  >  n{n). 
§  662.     The  assimilation  of  ny  to  n{n)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sunya  '  empty,'  Mahar.  Prak.  sunna,  sunna, 
Pali  sunna.,  Ass.  sima,  Kasm.  chonoi,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  sun{d), 
Panj.  si()in{a),  Sindlil  suhd,  Guj.  sun,  siimn,  Mar.  sund. 

ny  >  7i{n). 
§  663.     Tlie  assimilation  of  ny  to  n{n)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  manydmi  '  I  think,'  Jaina  Prak.  manndmi 
(cf.  Skt.  manye,  Prak.  manne,  Pali  mahhe).  Skt.  sunya  'empty,' 
Mahar.  Prak.  sunna,  sunna,  Ass.  sund,  Kasm.  chonoi,  E.  Hindi, 
Hindi  su)i[d),  Panj.  sunn{d),  Guj.  sun,  sui'nn.  Mar.  sund,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §).  Skt.  «???/a  'other,'  Prak.  anna,  anna.  Old 
Hindi  ani,  etc.  (see  §  661). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  nydha  'grandfather,'  Old  Pers.  apanydka, 
Phi.  nydJc,  New  Pers.  niyd,  Afy.  ?i7/l'a,  Bal.  tidhu,  N.  Bal.  waxo. 
Av.  anya  'other,'  Old  Pers.  aniya,  Paz.  lian,  Oss.  iwwa. 

nv  >  n{n). 
§  664.     The  assimilation  of  nv  to  n{n)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  auvesana  'inquiry,'  Mahar.  Prak.  annesana. 


pt  >  d(d). 
§  665.     Tlie  assimilation  of  ^^  to  d{<l)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  saptasasH  'sixty- seven,'  Prak.  sattasatthi, 
Kasm.  satalmith,  Ur.  satsafhi.  Bang,  sdtsatthi,  Biharl  sarasath, 
sarasafhi,  satasathi,  Hindi  sarsafh,  satsath,  Panj.  satdhaf,  Sindhi 
sathathi,  Guj.  sadscth.  Mar.  satsast. 


184  JNDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

jpt  >  t{t). 
§  666.     Tlie  assimilation  of  pt  to  t{t)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this   consonant-group   is   subject  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo- 
Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sa])tan  'seven,'  Prak.,  Pali  satta,  Kasm. 
sath,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi  sdt^  Panj.  satt,  Sindhi  sat,  Gruj.,  Mar. 
saty  Siihli.  sata,  Jiafa.  Skt.  siqyta  'asleep/  Prak.,  Pali  stitta, 
Sindhi  siitO. 

h.  Iranian.  Av.  Vx'ap  'to  sleep,' Plil.  x^aftano,  New  Pers. 
xuftan,  Gab.  xiiftmiJn,  Zaf.  voft,  Kas.  xut,  Von.  xuff,  Kuhr.  xuf, 
Nay.  havoftand,  Maz.  xut,  WaxI  riixjMtn,  Siyn.  sovsam,  Sarq. 
xufsam,  Bal.  vaj^sag,  N.  Bal.  vafsay,  Dig.  Oss.  xussun,  Tag. 
xussin.  Phi.  haftano  'to  fall,'  Gab.  haftmim,  Kas.  darkatan, 
darkaftan,  Maz.  dakafan,  GiL  hakaffan,  Bal.  kapag,  Kurd.  A;a^i«. 

pt  >  d[d). 
§  667.     The  assimilation  of  ^^  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  supta  '  asleep,'  New  Pers.  xtiftah,  Aiy.  uda. 
Skt.  tapta  '  warm, '  New  Pers.  taft,  Afy.  tod,  S.  Oss.  thafth. 

pt  >  {d)dh. 
§  668.     The  assimilation  of  ^;^  to  {d)dh  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hapta  'seven,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  haft,  WaxI 
huh,  {h)uh,  Siyn.  vuvd,  Sarq.  ilvd,  Sangl.  Jioft,  Minj.  ub,  Yidg. 
avdiih,  Yayn.  av,  Afy.  ova,  ava,  Oss.  avd,  Dig.  also  aft. 

pt  >  pht,  ft. 
§  669.     The  spirantization  oi pt  toft  occurs  not  infrequently  in 
the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hapta  '  seven,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  liaft,  Sangl. 
hoft,  Dig.  Oss.  aft,  avd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §), 

pt  >phth,fth. 

§  670.     The  double  spirantization  of  ^^  to  phth,fth,  is  very  rare. 
b.  Iranian.     Skt.  ta2)ta  'warm,'  S.  Oss.  thajth,  etc.  (see  §  667). 


CONSONANT-GBOUPS  185 

2)f  >  h{h). 

§  671.     Tlie  assimilation  of  j^^  to  l{h)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.      Av.  hcq^ta  'seven,'  WaxI  Jiiih,  {h)uh,  etc.  (see 

§  668). 

2)t  >  r{r). 

§  672.     Tlie  assimilation  of  2^^  to  r{r)  is  excessively  rare  (cf.  §  230). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  saptasasti  'sixty-seven,'  Biharl  sarasathi, 
sarasatJi,  satasathi,  Hindi  sarsafJi,  saisafh,  etc.  (see  §  665). 

2)t  >  r{v). 
§  673.     The  assimilation  of  j>^  to  v{v)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  hai)ta  '  seven,'  Yayn,  m\  Afy.  ova,  ava,  etc. 

(see  §  668). 

pt  >  V(l 

§  674.     The  softening  of  the  consonant-group  pt  to  vd  is  not 

very  common. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  Jicqyfa  '  seven,'  Siyn.  vtwd,  Sarq.  iivd,  Yidg. 

avditJi,  Oss.  avd,  etc.  (see  §  668). 

jm  >  pp. 
§  675.     The  assimilation  oipn  io  pp  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  svapna  'sleep,'  Pali  soppa,  siipina.  Skt. 
prapnoti  'obtains,'  Vva^. pailnai,  pavai,  Pali  pappoti,  papunati^ 
Ur.  pa,  Bang,  pad,  Old  Hindi  pail,  Hindi  pa{v),  Panj.  pail, 
Sindhi  pa,  Guj.  pdm,  Mar.  pav,  Simh.  paminenava. 

]?n  >  /(/). 
§  676.     The  assimilation  of  pn  to  /(/)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  tajnu  '  heat/  New  Pers.  taf. 

pn  >  m{m). 
§  677.     The  assimilation  of  jpw  to  m{m)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  291). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  prapnoti  '  obtains,'  Simh.  paminenava,  etc. 
(see  §  675). 


186  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

pny  >  m{m). 

§  678.     Tlie  assimilation  oi  pny  to  m{m)  is  exceedingly  rare, 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  xsafnya  '  supper, '  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sdni. 

ini  >  lip)' 

§  679.     Tlie  assimilation  of  py  to  p{]))  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Ski.  kiqjyafi  'is  angry,' Prak.  Tcuppai,  Pali  kup- 
pati,  Biharl  kopai.     Skt.  tapyate  '  is  warmed, '  Pali  tappati. 

pr  >p{p). 

§  680.     The  assimilation  of  ^;r  to  2il>)  is  the  regular   one  to 
which  this  consonant- group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  j;m^i  '  toward,'  Prak.  ^;af/i,  Pali  jyati,  paU, 
New  Ind,  dialects  pad{i).  Skt.  apriya  '  offensive,'  Prak.  appia, 
'Paih  apphja.  Skt.  prasthcqjaim  'sending,' Ur.  j;a#7««?6a.  Bang. 
pdfhdn,  Hindi  patlidnd,  Sindhi  paihamiy  Guj.  pdtjiavum,  Mai-. 
pdtavimm. 

pr  >  r(r). 

§  681.     The  assimilation  of  j)r  to  r{r)  is  the  regular  one  to  wliich 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers. /ra  'forward,'  Phi. /ra,/ar.  New 
I* ers.  far,  fir,  Pamir  dialects  ra,  Kurd,  hal,  hil.  Phi.  froxtano 
'to  sell,'  New  Vevs.  fiiroxian,  Zaf.  ?>axros  '  sell !' Von.  bar  us, 
Kuhr.  haxrus,  Samn.  narusum,  Maz.  ru§,  rut,  N.  Bal.  savaskay, 
suskay.  Av.  frqs  'forward,'  Phi.  frdc,  Paz.  frd<;,  fi'az.  New 
Pers.  ^m^,  Oss.  razai. 

pr  >  Jil. 

§  682.     Tlie  assimilation  of  j;r  to  hi  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  354). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  jafra  '  deep, '  Phi.  zufixr,  zafar,  New  Pers. 
zarf,  Judaeo-Pers.  zbrf,  Afy.  zavar,  Bal.  ^ulil,  Kurd,  ior,  Zaza 
jor. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  187 

lis  >  s[s). 
§  683.     The  assimilation  oi X)s  to  s{s)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  fsardma  'shame,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sarm, 
Dig.  Oss.  afsarmi,  Tag.  afsarm.  Av.  "^'fsu-imna  'shepherd,' 
Phi.  s{u)pan,  New  Pers.  siibdn,  Waxi  spiin,  si'qnin,  Bal.  slpanh, 
N.  Bal.  savdnJch,  safdnhh. 

])s  >  {c)ch. 
§  684.     The  assimilation  of  ps  to  {c)clh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  apsard  'nymph,'  Prak.,  Pali  acchard,  Old 
Hindi  acchan,  apclmr,  Sindhi  apchard.  Skt.  jugupsati  'de- 
spises,' Prak.  du{g)uccha'i,  dit{g)umchai,  Pali  jigucchati. 

ps  >  hz. 
§  685.     The  softening  oi ps  to  hs  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Lit.  vapsd  'wasp,'  Old  High  Germ,  wafsa,  Bal. 

gvahz,  gvamz. 

ps  >  mz. 

§  686.    Tlie  assimilation  oips  to  mz  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  291). 

b.  Iranian.     Lit.  vapsd  'wasp,'  Bal.  gvamz,  gvahz,  etc.   (see 

preceding  §). 

ps  >  vs. 

§  687.     The  assimilation  of  J95  to  vs  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Phi.  afsdr  'headstall,'  New  Pers.  afsdr,  Siyn., 

Sarq.  avsdr. 

ps  >  s{s). 

§  688.     The  assimilation  of  j>5  to  5(5)  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  x^'afsata  '  sleep  ye !  '  Plil.  x'"afs~itan6,  New 
Pers.  xuspJdan,  Siyn.  sorsam,  Sarq.  xufsam,  Bal.  vapsag,  N.  Bal. 
vafsay,  Dig.  Oss.  xussun^  Tag.  xussin. 

pstr  >  sir. 
§  689.     The  assimilation  oi pstr  to  str  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  xrafstra  'noxious  beast,'  Phi.  xrafstr,  New 
Pers.  (Parsi)  xardsfar,  archaic  xrafstar. 


188  IXDO-IRAXIAN  rilONOLGGY 

fs  >2>S. 

§  690.     The  hardening  of  Iranian /5  to  ps  occurs  very  seldom. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  x^afsata  '  sleep  ye ! '  Bal.  vapsag,  etc.  (see 
§  688).  

¥  >  Jij)- 

§  691.     The  assimilation  of  hj  to  j{j)  is  found  but  rarely. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  huhja   'hump-backed,'  Prak.,  Pali   khujja, 

Kasm.  Jcohh,  Ur.  Jcuja,  Bang.  ku{m)jd,  Tiiibja,  Hindi  huhjd,  kuhhd, 

kuhrd  (rare),  Panj,  kuhhd,  7mhd,  Sindhi  Jcuho,  Guj.  Jcuhard,  Mar. 

Mmh,  hubadd. 

Ij  >  Id. 

§  692.     The  assimilation  of  bj  to  M  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  182). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Jciihja  'hump-backed,'  Hindi  huhrd  (rare), 
hubbd,  Jcubjd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

ij  >  m- 

§  693.    Tlie  assimilation  of  bj  to  b{b)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  huhja  'hump-backed,'  Kasm.  Icobh,  Hindi 
kubbd,  Jcubjd,  Jcubrd,  Panj.  hubbd,  hubd,  Sindhi  hubo,  Mar.  Jchub, 
hubadd,  etc.  (see  §  691). 

bd  >  d{d). 

§  694.     Tlie   assimilation   of  bd  to  d{d)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sabda  '  word,'  Prak.,  Pali  sadda,  Old  Hindi 
sad. 

bdh  >  [d)dh. 

§  695.     The  assimilation  of  bdh  to  {d)dli  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  labdha  '  received,'  Prak.,  Pali  laddha,  Sindhi 
ladho. 

br  >  b{b). 

§  696.     The  assimilation   of  br  to  b{b)  is  the  regular  one   to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 


CONSONANT-  GRO  UPS  189 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hralimana  '  Brahman,'  Prak.  hamhJiana,  in- 
scriptions of  Kapur  di  Giri  hamana,  Jaina  Prak.  mdhana,  Pali 
hrdhmana,  Biharl  haman,  hdmhan,  bdmahan,  Sindhi  hamhlianu, 
Simh.  hamha. 


hhy  >  {b)hk 

§  697.     The  assimilation  of  hJiy  to  {h)hh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  abhyantara  'internal,'  Prak.,  Pali  abhlian- 
tara,  Ur.,  Bang,  bhitari,  Biharl,  Hindi  bhitar,  Guj.  bhitar,  Mar, 
bhitari.  Skt.  labhyate  'is  taken,' Prak.  labbJia'i,  Pali  labbhati, 
Old  Hindi  labbli,  Sindhi  labJi. 

bhr  >  b{b). 

§  698.     The  assimilation  of  bhr  to  b{b)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  bhramara  'bee,'  Prak.,  Pali  bhamara,  Ur. 
bhamara,  Bang,  bhamar,  Hindi,  Panj.  blicmvar,  bhdumr,  Sindhi 
bhdiimrUj  Mar.  bhomr,  Simh.  bambara. 

bhr  >  {h)bh. 

§  699.     The  assimilation  of  bhr  to  {b)bh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  bhratar  '  brother,'  Prak.  bhdd,  Pali  bhdtd, 
New  Ind.  dialects  bhdJ,  also  Panj.  bhrdii,  Sindhi  bhdii,  Mar. 
bhdu,  Gyp.  phral.  Skt.  bhramara  '  bee,'  Prak.,  Pali  bhamara, 
Ur.  bhamara,  Bang,  bhamar,  Hindi,  Panj.  bhamvar,  bhdumr, 
Sindhi  bhdumrii,  Mar.  hhomr,  etc.  (see  preceding  «^). 

bhr  >  vr. 

§  700.     Tlie  assimilation  of  bhr  to  vr  is  very  common  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  brdtar  'brother,'  Phi.  bhdt{ar), 
New  Pers.  birddar,  Kas.  bard,  bardi,  Gil.  brdr,  Wax!  vruf,  Siyn. 
virdd,  Sarq.  vrOd,  Sangl.  vurd,  Yidg.  vrai,  Yayn.  virdf,  Afy.  vrOr, 


190  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Bal.  hrdt,  N.  Bal.  hrds,  hrd9,  Kurd,  hard.  Dig.  Oss.  arudda,  Tag. 
arvdd.  Av.  atvra  'cloud,'  Plil.,  New  Pers,  abr^  Gab.,  Kas.  avr. 
Judaeo-Pers.  ahr,  Afy.  varyaj,  Bal.  Aarr,  Kurd.  {h)avr,  hdur, 
Oss.  an*. 

mw  >  mm. 
§  701.     The  assimilation  of  mn  to  turn  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  Jcamna  '  small,'  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
kam. 

mp  >  p{p). 
§  702.     Tlie  assimilation  of  mp  to^(^)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  parampara  '  reciprocal,'  Pali  parampara, 
Simh.  parapura.  Skt.  campaka  '  sort  of  tree,'  Apab.  Prak. 
camptayu,  Pali  campaJia^  Simh.  sapu. 

mp  >  mh 
§  703.     The  softening  of  m2)  to  mh  is  quite  a  frequent  phe- 
nomenon. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hampati  'trembles,'  Prak.  Jcampa'i,  Pali 
Icampati,  Ass.  hamp,  Kasm.  lcam{p\  Ur.  kanip,  Bang.  Tcdmp^ 
Hindi  hamp,  Panj.  kamh,  Sindhi  kanih,  Guj.,  Mar.  hdmp. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Jiqmpdfrditi  (intens.)  'fills,'  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
mnbdUan  (written  anhdstan). 

mh  >  h{h). 
§  704.     The  assimilation  of  mh  to  h{h)  Is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Tcamhala  '  blanket, '  Prak.,  Pali  Jcamhala,  Ur. 
Ttamala,  Bang,  kamhal,  kamli,  E.  Hindi  kammar,  Hindi  kammal, 
kathhal,  Panj.  kammal,  kamhal,  Sindhi  kamari,  Guj.  kdhalj), 
Jcdnial,  kamali,  Mar.  kdmhala. 

mh  >  ?»(m). 
§  705.     The  assimilation  of  mh  to  m{)n)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo -Iranian  dialects. 


CONSONANT-a  ROUPS  191 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  aJamhana  '  support,'  Pali  arammana.  Skt. 
jamhuJca  '  roso-apple,' Ass.  ^awiw,  Bang,  jam,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi, 
Panj.  jf7imu)i,  Sindhi  janiun,  Guj.  jdmhti,  Mar.  jamb.  Skt.  Jcam- 
hala  '  blanket, '  Ur.  Jcamala,  E.  Hindi  Jcammar,  Hindi  hammal, 
Jcamhal,  Panj.  Jiammal,  Tianihal,  Sindlil  hamari,  Guj.  hamal, 
Jcamall,  Mhalo,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  nimha  '  sort  of  tree,' 
Prak.  llmha,  Prdi  nimha,  Bihari  nim,  Hindi  llm,  nlm,  Sindhi 
limu,  Guj.  Ihhhado,  Mar.  limh. 

b.  Iranian.  Plil.  silcumb  '  stomach,'  New  Pers.  siJciim,  Kurd. 
sik.     New  Pers.  hamhaz  '  comrade/  Kurd,  hamcs,  xamlz. 

mhh  >  m{m). 

§  708.     Tlie  assimilation  of  mJ)h  to  m{ni)  is  very  rare, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  JciimhJtakdra  'potter,'  Prak.  kiimbhadm, 
Tiimibhdra,  Pali  Jcumhhahdra,  Ass.  kumdr,  Naip.  humdmlye,  Ur. 
Jcumhdra,  Jcuhmdra,  Bang,  kumdr,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj. 
kumhdr,  Sindlil  kumhliaru,  Guj.,  Mar.  kimihlidr. 

mhh  >  mh. 

§  707.     The  assimilation  of  mWi  to  mh  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kumhJiakdra  '  potter,'  Ur,  kumhdra,  kiih- 
mdra,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  kumhdr,  etc.  (see  preceding  §), 

mhh  >  hm. 

§  708.     The  assimilation  of  mhJi  to  hm  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  kumhhakdra  'potter,'  Ur.  kuhmdra,  kumhdra, 
etc.  (see  §  706). 

mr  >  mhr  >  mh. 

§  709,     Insertion  of  h  in  the  group  mr  and  subsequent  assimila- 
tion to  mh  is  found  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian,  Skt,  fc?>i>-a 'copper,' Prak,  tamha,  tamhira,  Pali 
tamha.  Ass.  tdm,  Kasm,  tram,  Ur.  idmd,  tdmhd.  Bang,  tdmd, 
E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  tdmd,  tdmhd,  Sindlil  tdmd,  Guj.  tdmhum. 
Mar.  tdmhem,  Simh.  tamhara.     Skt.  dmra  '  mango,'  Prak.,  Pali 


192  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

aniba,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi  am,  athb,  Panj.  amah,  Sindhi  anibu, 
Larl  dmo,  dmil,  Guj.  amhu,  Mar.  amhd,  Simh.  aniba. 

mr  >  7nhr  >  m{7n). 
§  710.     Insertion  of  b  in  the  group  mr  and  subsequent  assimila- 
tion to  in{m)  is  found  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tdmra  '  copper/  Ass.  tdin,  Kasm.  tram,  Ur. 
tdmd,  tdmhd,  Bang,  tdmd,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  tdmd,  tdmbd, 
Sindhi  tamo,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  dmra  'mango,'  Ur., 
Bang.  d7n,  amb,  Lari  dmo,  dmu,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

mv  >  m{m). 
§  711.     The  assimilation  of  mv  to  m{m)  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     New  Pers.  hamvdrah  'ever'  beside  hamdrah. 

mil  >  mgh. 
§  712.     The  assimilation  of  yhh  to  7hgh  is  found  occasionally  in 
the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  simha  'Hon,'  Prak.  sJJia,  Mahar.  Prak. 
simgha,  siha,  Pali  slha,  Gatha  simlia,  Kasm.  suh,  Biliarl,  E.  Hindi 
simgh,  smgh,  sunk,  Panj.  simgh,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  simh 
(pron.  and  often  written  sintgh). 


rh  >  lc(k). 
§  713.    The  assimilation  of  rh  to  h{]c)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects,  but  it  is  very 
rare  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  «rZ;a 'sun,' Prak.,  Piili  ahka.  Skt  JcarJcara 
'  gravel,'  Ass.,  Naip.  JcdmJcar,  Bang.  Icamkar.  Skt.  karkafa  'crab,' 
Pali  kakkafaka,  Ur.,  Bang.  Jcdmkard,  E.  Hindi  kckard,  kekard, 
Hindi  kdmkard,  Sindhi  kdmkaro.  Skt.  karkatikd  'cucumber,' 
Ur.,  Bang.  kd{m)kudl,  Hindi,  F an j.ka{k)ka(lJ,  Sindhi  kakkli,  Guj., 
Mar.  kdkadl.  Skt,  sarkara  '  sugar,'  Pali  sakkara,  sakkhara,  New 
Ind.  dialects  sakkar,  except  Mar.  sdkJiar. 

b.  Iranian.     New  Pers.  sirkah  '  vinegar '  beside  sikah. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  193 

rk  >  {Jc)kh. 

§  714.     The  assimilation  of  rJc  to  {Jc)JcJi  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sarJcara  '  sugar,'  Pali  sakkhara,  sakkara, 
Mar.  sdkhar,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

rk  >  t{t). 

§  715.     The  change  of  rk  to  t{t)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  119  ?). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kurkura  '  dog '  besides  kukkura,  Pali  kiikkura, 
Bang,  kutta,  kiikkur,  Biharl  kutta,  kuk{k)ar,  Hindi  kiitta,  kukka, 
Sindhi  kuto,  Guj.  kutro^  Mar.  kutra. 

rk  >  tr. 

§  716.     The  change  of  rk  to  tr  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kurkura^  kukkura  'dog,'  Guj.  kidro,  Mar. 
Jcutrct,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

rg  >  gig)- 

§  717.     The  assimilation  of  rg  to  gig)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  varga  'row,'  Prak.,  Pali  vagga.  Skt.  marga- 
yati  'seeks,'  Prak.  magga'i,  Pali  nmggatl,  maggeti,  Ass.  mag, 
Kasm.  mamg,  Ur,  mag,  Bang.,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  niamg,  Panj. 
mamg,  Sindhi  man,  Guj.,  Mar.  tndg,  Gyp.  mang. 

w^  >  ig)g^i' 

§  718.     The  assimilation  of  rgr  to  {g)gh  is  found  but  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nirgrantha  'ascetic,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of 
Delhi)  nighanita. 

rgh  >  g{g). 

§  719.     The  assimilation  of  rgh  to  g{g)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  maliargha  '  costly, '  Pali  mahaggha,  Ass. 
mahamga,  magar,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  mahamga,  Panj.  mahimga, 
Sindhi  mahamgo,  Guj.  momglmm,  Mar.  maJiag,  Maladive  agu. 

o 


194  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

^9^  >  {9)9^^- 
§  720.     The  assimilation  of  7'gh  to  {g)gh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  tliis  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   nirglirna  'pitiless,'  Prak.  nigghina.     Skt. 
argha  '  sacrifice,'  Pali  agglia.     Skt.  dirgha  '  long,'  Prak.  diggha, 
■  diJia,  Pali  dtgha,  Sindhi  drigho. 

rgJi  >  h{Ji). 
§  721.    The  assimilation  of  rgh  to  Ji{Ji)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  152). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  dlrglia  'long,'  Prak.  diha^  diggha,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

rj  >  M- 
§  722.     The  assimilation  of  rj  to  j{j)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects, 

a,  Indian.  Skt.  pa7y7fa  '  must-elephant, '  Prak.  gajjida,  Pali 
gajjita.  Skt.  garjana  'thunder,'  Pali  gajjana,  Hindi  gdjana, 
Panj.  gajjana,  Sindhi  gajanu,  Guj.  gajavuy'n,  Mar.  gajanem. 

rj  >  rz. 
§  723.     The  change  of  rj  to  rz  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  185). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  arajah  '  value, '  Plil.  arj,  Paz.  arzan,  New 
Pers.  arz,  Ka^.  azii,  ajiija,  ajiyo,  Af/.  yarz. 

rj  >  z{z). 
§  724.     The  assimilation  of  rj  to  i(i)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  186). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  ardjah  'value,'  Kas.  azu,  ajiya,  ajiyo,  etc. 

(see  preceding  §). 

rjh  >  {j)jh. 

§  725.     The  assimilation  of  rjh  to  {j\jh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 
a.    Indian.     Skt.  nirjhara  '  cascade,'  Prak.,  Pali  nijjhara. 

rn  >  n{n). 
§  726.     The  assimilation  of  rn  to  n{n)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  195 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  suvarna  '  gold,'  Prak.  suimina,  Pali  sonna, 
svanna^  Kasm.  son,  Ur.  siind,  sOna,  Bang.  sOna,  Hindi,  Panj.  sonct, 
Sindhi  sd{}h)iiu,  Guj.  sOnu,  Mar.  saimam,  sOmm,  Gyp.  somnaMy. 

rn  >  n{n). 

§  727.     The  assimilation  of  rn  to  %(w)  is  very  frequent  in  the 
New  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Jcarna  '  ear,'  Pali  Tcanna,  Ur.,  Bang.,  BiharT, 
Hindi  Mn,  Panj.  Jcann,  Sindhi  Jcanu,  Guj.,  Mar.  Jean,  Gyp.  ^"aii. 
Skt.  tamraiKirna  'copper-leaf,  Ceylon,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of 
Girnar,  Kliillsi,  and  Kapur  di  Giri)  tanibapa{m)ni,  Pali  tamha- 
j^anni  (Gr.  Tairpo^avri).  Skt.  suvarna  'gold,'  Kasm.  son,  Ur. 
suna,  Sana,  Hindi,  Panj.  sona,  Sindhi  sd{m)nu,  Guj.  sunu,  Mar. 
saunam,  soneni,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  iirna  '  wool,'  Pali 
Mwwa,  Hindi  un,  Panj.  www,  Sindhi,  Guj.  un. 

rn  >  r(r). 

§  728.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rn  to  r{r)  is  not  infrequent  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  curna  'powder,'  Prak.,  Pali  cunna,  Kasm. 
cun,  Ur.  curd.  Bang,  cur,  Hindi  curd,  Panj.  cur,  Sindhi  curd, 
Guj.  euro.  Mar.  ciir,  but  also  with  the  signification  'lime,'  Ur., 
Bang,  cund,  Hindi,  Panj.  cund,  Sindhi,  Guj.  ciino,  cilno,  Mar. 
cund,  cund.  Skt.  purna  '  full,'  Pali  jiunna,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi, 
Panj.  ]gurd,  Sindhi  puro,  Guj.  puro.  Mar.  purd, 

rt  >  rtJi. 

§  729.     The  aspirization  of  rt  to  rtJt,  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sarofa  'cold,'  Phi.  sart,  New  Pers.  sard, 
Waxi  siir{i),  Afy.  sOr,  Bal.  sarcZ,  N.  Bal.  sarth,  Kurd.  5ar,  Tag. 
Oss.  said. 

rt  >  t{f). 

§  730.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rt  to  i{t)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   nartalu  'dancing-girl,'  Prak.   naijai,   Pali 

0  % 


196  INDO- IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

nattahi,  New  Ind.  dialects  natl.  Skt.  varfaTca  'quail,'  Pali 
vaffaJcd,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  vater,  Sindhi  hater o,  Simh, 
vatuva. 

rt  >  d{(l}. 

§  731.    The  assimilation  of  rt  to  d{d)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  226), 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  garta  'ditch,'  Prak.  gadda,  Ur.  gadiha,  Bang. 
gad,   Hindi  gad,  gada,   Panj.   gaddand,   Sindhi  garanu,   Guj. 
gdravum,  Mar.  garancm. 

rt  >  t{t). 

§  732.     The  assimilation  of  rt  to  t{t)  is  very  common  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  muhurta  '  instant,'  Prak.,  Pali  muhutta. 
Skt.  dvarta  'whirlpool,'  Pali  avatta,  dvatta,  Skt.  vartiJcd  'wick,' 
Prak.  vattid,  Pali  vattikd,  Ur.  hati,  Bang,  hdtl,  Hindi,  Panj. 
batfj,  Sindhi  rati,  Guj.  hati,  Mar.  hatti.  Skt.  kartarl  '  scissors,' 
Prak.  Tiattarl,  Ur.  katurd,  Bang.  Jcataran,  Hindi,  Panj.  katarani, 
Sindhi  katari,  Mar.  kdfar. 

rt  >  d{d). 

§  733.     The  assimilation   of  rt  to  d{d)  is   extremely  rare  (cf. 
§  228). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  kardta  '  knife,'  Phi.  kdrf,  New  Pers.  kdrd, 
Siyn.  ced,  Kurd,  klrd,  Mr,  Oss.  khard. 

rt  >  rd. 

§  734.    The  softening  of  rt  to  rd  is  not  infrequent  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  karjfa  '  knife,'  New  Pers.  kdrd,  Kurd,  klrd, 
klr,  Oss.  khard,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  vartakd  '  quail,'  Plil. 
varfak.  New  Pers.  vardlj,  WaxI  vole,  Afy.  nvaraz,  Bal.  gvarddg, 
Kurd,  vardl. 

H  >  r{r). 

§  735.     Tlio  assimilation  of  rt  to  r[r)  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  sardta  'cold,'  WaxI  siiril),  Kurd,  sdr,  etc. 


CONSONANT- GBOUPS  197 

(see   §    729).     Av.    harota    'knife,'   Kurd,    lilr,   JcJrd,   etc.    (see 
§  733). 

rt  >  l{l). 

§  736.     Tlie   assimilation   of  rt  to   1{I)   is   extremely   rare  (of. 
§85^). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  porjtii  '  bridge,'  Phi.  ])ulir,  imlil,  New  Pers. 
pu\  Gil.  purd,  Kurd,  pel,  par,  pird,  purd. 

rt  >  Id. 
§  737.     The  softening  of  rt  to  Id  is  exceedingly  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  sardta  '  cold,'  Tag.  Oss.  said,  etc.  (see  §  729). 

rt  >  hi. 

§  738.     The  change  of  rt  to  hi  is  foimd  occasionally  (cf.  §§  227, 
742). 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  pordtu  'bridge,'  Phi.  puhl,  puhr,   etc.  (see 
§  786). 

rth  >  f{t). 

§  739.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rth  to  t{t)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  artha  '  object,'  Prak.  attha,  attha  (cf.  inscrip- 
tions of  Kapur  di  Giri  anafJia),  Pali  at  fa,  attha,  attha.  Skt. 
caturtha  'foiu'th,'  Prak.  cottha,  Pali  catuttha,  Ur.  cautha.  Bang. 
cciutd,  Hindi,  Panj.  cautha,  Sindhi,  Guj.  cotho.  Mar.  cdmhtha. 

rth  >  {t)th. 

§  740.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rth  to  {t)fh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  artha  'object,'  Prak.  attha,  attha  (Kapur  di 
Giri)  anatha,  Pali  attha,  attha,  aft  a.  Skt.  caturtha  '  fourth,' 
Prak.  cauttha,  cottha,  Saur.  Prak.  caduttha,  Ur.  cautha,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

rth  >  {t)th. 

§  741.     The  assimilation  of  rth  to  {t}th  is  the  normal  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  caturtha  '  fourth,'  Prak.  cottha,  Pah  catuttha, 


198  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Hindi,  Panj.  cdutJid,  Sindhi,  Guj.  cOthO,  Mar.  cdmhtha,  etc.  (see 
§  739). 

rth  >  111 

§  742.     The  change  of  rth  to  hi  occurs  with  extreme  rarity  in 
the  Iranian  dialects  (cf.  §§  354,  245,  956). 

b.  Iranian.     Old  Pars,  imrthava  nom.  prop.,  Plil.,  New  Pers. 
paJilav.     Skt.  sarnartha  '  suitable,'  New  Pers.  liamal. 


rd  > 

§  743.     The  assimilation  of  rd  to  d{d)  is  quite  frequent  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  clianlati  'rejects,*  Prak.  chaddati,  Pali  chad- 
deti,  Ass.  car  (pron.  sdr),  Kasm.  char,  car,  Ur.,  Bang,  char,  Old 
Hindi  chamd,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  chamr,  Panj.  chadd,  Sindhi  chad, 
Mar.  sdmr.  Skt.  gardabha  '  donkey,'  Prak.  gaddaha,  gaddaha, 
Pali  gadrahha,  but  gaddabhanda.  Ass.  gadli,  Naip.  gadciha,  Ur. 
gadha,  Bang,  gadha,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  gadhu,  Panj.  gadha,  gaddd, 
Sindhi  gaddhu,  Guj.  gadhcro,  Mar.  gadhav,  Gyp.  Jchel,  hher, 
(k)fer. 

rd  >  {d)dh. 

§  744.     The  assimilation  of  rd  to  {d)dh  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  gardabha  '  donkey,'  Mar.  gadhav,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

nZ  >  d{d). 

§  745.    The  assimilation  of  rd  to  f?((Z)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  caturdasa  'fourteen,'  Prak.  caiiddaha,  Pali 
catiiddasa,  coddasa,  cuddasa,  Kasm.  coddh,  Ur.  cduda,  Bang. 
cnudda,  Biharl,  Hindi  cdndah,  Panj.  cdnddm,  Sindhi  codahani, 
Guj.  caud.  Mar.  cduda.  Skt.  gardabha  '  donkey,'  Prak.  gad- 
daha, gaddaha,  Naip.  gaddha,  Panj.  gaddd,  gadhd,  etc.  (see 
§  743). 

rd  >  {d)dh. 

§  746.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rd  to  {d)dh  is  not  frequent. 


CONSONANT- GROUPS  199 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  gardabha  'donkey,'  Ass.  gddh,  Ur.  gadha, 
Bang,  gcidhaj  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  gadha,  Panj.  gadhd,  gadda,  Guj. 
gadhero,  etc.  (see  §  743). 

rd  >  r{r). 

§  747.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rd  to  r{r)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hapardikd  '  small  shell,'  Prak.  Jcavadda, 
E.  Hindi,  Hindi  Jcdiirl,  kauri,  Anglo-Ind.  cowry. 

rd  >  l{l). 

§  748.  The  assimilation  of  rd  to  l{l)  is  exceedingly  rare  in  the 
Indian  dialects.  In  the  Iranian  dialects,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  not 
infrequent  (cf.  §§  354,  258). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  halivarda  '  bull,'  Prak.  hmlla. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sardha  '  year,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  sal,  Dig.  Oss. 
sarda,  Tag.  sard. 


rdh  > 

§  749.     The  assimilation  of  rdh  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vardhate  '  grows,'  Prak.  vaddlia'i,  Pali  vad- 
dJiafi,  Ass.  hdrh,  Kasm.  had,  Ur.  harh,  Bang,  had,  E.  Hindi, 
Hindi  hdclh,  W.  Hindi  harh,  Panj.,  Sindlil,  Guj.  vadh,  Mar. 
bddh.  Skt.  sdrdha  '  plus  one-half,'  Prak.  saddha,  saddha,  Kasm. 
sddil,  Ur.  sdrhe,  Bang,  sdre,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  sdrhe,  Panj.  sddhe, 
Sindhi  sddhd,  Guj.  sddd.  Mar.  sdde,  Siihh.  ada. 


rdh  > 

§  750.     The  assimilation  of  rdh  to  {dyjh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vardhate  'grows,'  Prak.  vaddha'i,  Pali  vad- 
dhati,  Ass.  hdrh,  Ur.  harh,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  hddh,  W.  Hindi  harli, 
Mar.  hddh,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  vardhaJci  '  carpenter,' 
Ur.,  Bang.,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  harhdi,  Panj.  haddJfi,  Sindhi,  Guj. 
vddho.  Mar.  varhai.     Skt.  sardha  '  plus  one-half,'  Prak.  saddha. 


200  INDO-TKAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

soddha,  Ur.,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  sarlie,  Panj.  sadhc,  Sindlii  sadha^ 
etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

rdh  >  {d)dh. 

§  751.     Tlie  assimilation  of  7'dh  to  {d)dh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vardhate  '  grows,'  Panj.,  Sindhi,  Guj.  vadh, 
etc.  (see  §  749). 

rdhv  >  {d)dh. 

§  752.  Tlie  assimilation  of  rdhv  to  {d)dh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  urdJiva  '  high,'  Prak.,  Pali  uddha,  ubhha, 
Sindhi  uhJio,  Guj.  iihlnm,  Mar.  t(hha. 

rdJiv  >  {h)hJi. 

§  753.  The  assimilation  of  rdhv  to  {b)bh  is  frequent  in  the 
Indian  dialects  {rdhv  >  ddhv  >  ddhh  >  dhh  >  hhh). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  iirdhva  '  high,'  Prak.,  Pali  ubhha,  uddha, 
Sindhi  ubho,  Guj.  ubhum,  Mar.  id)ha. 

rn  >  n{n). 

§  754.  The  assimilation  of  rn  to  n(n)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  Afyjin,  which  has  borrowed 
the  cerebral  row  from  the  Indian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hardna  ^deaf,'  New  Pers.  l-ar[r),  Laym. 
I'anna,  Sarq.  ciinn,  Afy.  Jiun,  hun,  Oss.  Imrmatha.  Ay.  parona 
'leaf,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  j>ar(r),  Gab.,  Waxi  par,  Aiy. pdna,  Bal. 
pan,  Kurd,  par,  TiBza^  pal. 

rn  >  n{n). 

§  755.  The  assimilation  of  rn  to  n[n)  is  not  infrequent  in  tlie 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  Jcarona  '  deaf,'  Laym.  Jcanna,  Sarq.  ciinn, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  urna  'wool,'  Siyn.  vun,  von,  Sarq. 
von.  Av.  pardna  *  full,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  pur,  Yayn.  pun.  A  v. 
pardna  '  leaf,'  Bal.  j;a«,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


CONSONANT-  GEO  UPS  201 

rn  >  tir). 

§  756.     The  assimilation  of  rn  to  r{r)  is  very  common  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  darona  'gullet,'  New  Pers.  darraJi,  Wax! 
hor,  Sarq,  bar.  Av.  parjua  '  leaf,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  ]mr{r\  Gab., 
Wax!,  Kurd.  j)m%  etc.  (see  §  754).  Av.  x^'ardnah  '  glory,'  Old 
Pers.  vida]farnaJi,  Phi.  farn[hag,  New  Pers.  far{r). 

rn  >  HI). 

§  757.    The  assimilation  of  rn  to  l{l)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §§  354,  281). 
b.  Iranian,     Av.  X)ardna  '  leaf,'  Zaza  pa\  etc.  (see  §  754). 

rp  >  p{p). 

§  758.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rp  to  p{p)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sarpa  '■  serpent,'  Prak.,  Pali  sappa,  Ur.,  Bang. 
s^q),  Hindi  samj),  Panj.  saj)p,  Sindhi  sapu,  Guj.,  Mar.  scq^,  Siihh. 
sa2ni,  sop{a),  liaxm,  ^J9-  sap.  Skt.  Jcarpilra  '  camphor,'  Prak., 
Pah  happiira,  New  Ind.  dialects  Jccqnlr,  except  Mar.  hlpilr. 

rh  >  h{h). 

§  759.    Tlie  assimilation  of  rh  to  h{h)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  arhuda  'ten  million  raised  to  the  eighth 
power,'  Pali  ahhuda.  Skt.  durbala  '  weak,'  Prak.,  Pali  duhhala, 
Bang,  duhla,  Biharl  duharct,  duhar,  Hindi  duUa,  Panj.  duhlal, 
Sindhi  diihird,  dahalu,  Guj.,  Mar.  dahal. 

rhh  >  {h)hh. 

§  760.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rhh  to  {h)hh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dial 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  garhha  '  uterus,'  Prak.,  Pali  gahhha,  Hindi 
garabh,  gahh,  Panj.  gabbh,  gahh,  garahh,  Sindhi  gabhu,  garahhu, 
Guj.,  Mar.  gahh,  cf.  also  Gyp.  khahnl  '  pregnant.' 


202  INDO-IBANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

rni  >  7n[m). 
§  761.     The  assimilation  of  rm  to  m{m)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  carman  '  skin/  Prilk.,  Pfili  camma,  New  Ind. 
dialects  cam,  excepting  Panj.  camm,  Sindhi  camu,  Siihh.  sama, 
hama.  Skt.  Jcarman  '  deed,'  Prak.,  Pali  Jcamma,  New  Ind. 
dialects  Mm,  excepting  Panj.  kamm,  Sindhi  Tcamu,  Simh.  kama. 

rm  >  r{r). 
§  762.     The  assimilation  of  rm  to  r{r)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  caroman  '  skin,'  Phi.  carmin.  New  Pers. 
carm,  Afy.  carman,  Tag.  Oss.  car,  carm.  Av.  garama  '  warm,' 
Old  Pers.  garma-,  New  Pers.,  Siyn.  ga/rm,  Sarq.  giirm,  Siirm, 
Afy.  yarma,  Bal.  garni,  Dig.  Oss.  yar,  yarm.  Tag.  qarm. 

ry  >  M- 
§  763.     The  assimilation  of  ry  to  j{j)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  331). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kdrya  'business,'  Prak.  hajja,  Mag.  Prak. 
kayye,  Saur.  Prak.  kera,  Pali  kayya,  kariya,  kayira,  Hindi, 
Panj.  kaj,  kdraj,  Sindhi  kdrju,  Guj.  kaj,  kdraj.  Mar.  kdj. 

ry  >  r{r). 
§  764.    Tlie  assimilation  of  ry  to  r{r)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and   New   Indo- 
Iranian  dialects, 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ftlrya  '  trumpet,'  Prak.  tilra,  Pali  ttlriya,  Ur. 
turi.  Bang,  turum,  Hindi  tiiri,  tilralu,  Panj.  tiiram,  Sindhi,  Guj. 
turi.  Skt.  surya  '■  sun,'  Prak,  sujja,  suria,  Pali  suriya,  Hindi, 
Panj.  siiraj,  Sindhi  surju,  stJriju,  Guj.  stir,  suraj,  Simh.  {h)iric. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  cirya  'brave,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  ch:  Av. 
airy  a  '  noble,'  Oss.  ir. 

ry  >  rj. 
§  765.     The  change  of  ry  to  rj  is  not  unknown  to  the  Indian 
dialects  (cf.  §  331). 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  203 

a.  Indian.      Skt.   Mrija   '  business/   Sindhi   hdrju   (cf.    also 

Hindi,  Panj.,  Guj.  Tcdraj,  Mj),  etc.  (see  §  763).    Skt.  silrya  'sun,' 

Sindlil  siirju,  surijii  (cf.  also  Hindi,  Panj.  stlraj,  Guj.  suraj,  sur), 

etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

ry  >l{l). 

§  766.     The  assimilation  of  rij  to  1{J)  occurs  quite  frequently  in 
the  Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  354). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  parymjha  '  bed,'  Prak.  pallamha^  Ardhamag. 
Prak.  2>(iliamJca,  Pali  pallamha,  New  Ind.  imlamg,  Anglo-Ind. 
palmiqiiin.  Skt.  paryana  '  saddle,'  Prak.  palldna,  Ur.  paldna, 
Bang,  pcilmi,  Hindi  paldn^  Panj.  paldn^  Sindhi  paldnu,  Guj. 
paldn{o\  Mar.  ptddn. 

rv  >  2j{p). 
§  767.     The  hardening  of  rv  to  2J{p)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  372), 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  carvayati  '  chews,'  Pali  cappeti,  Ur.  cohd^ 
Bang.,  Hindi  cdh,  Panj.  cabh^  Sindhi  ca\  Guj,,  Mar.  ccw,  Sirhh. 

sapanavd,  hapancwd. 

rv  >  h{h). 

§  768.     The  assimilation  of  rv  to  h{h)  is  not  very  frequent  (cf, 
§  372), 

a,  Indian.  Skt.  carvayati  '  chews,'  Ur.  coha,  Bang,,  Hindi 
cab,  Panj.  cahh,  Sindhi  cah,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  piarvata 
'  mountain,'  Pali  imlibaia,  Simh.  pava.  Skt.  sarva  '  all,'  Prak, 
savva,  Pali  sabha,  Ass,  sah,  Ur.  s«&?f,  Bang.  5a&,  E,  Hindi,  Hindi 
sah,  sahJi,  Panj.  sahh,  sarah,  Sindlil  sabliu,  Gyp.  savoro. 

rv  >  {h)hh. 
§  769.  The  assimilation  of  rv  to  {h)hh  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  373). 
a.  Indian,     Skt,  sarva  '  all,'  Hindi,  E.  Hindi  sahh,  sah,  Panj. 
sahh,  sarah,  Sindhi  sahhu,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

rv  >  rhh. 
§  770.     The  change  of  rv  to  rhh  is  exceedingly  rare  (cf .  §  373). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  parvan  'festival,'  Pali  jyahha,  Ur.,  Bang., 
Hindi,  Panj.  ^ara&,  Sm^l  pirhhu,  Guj,,  M.o.v.  parv. 


204  JXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

rv  >  r{r). 

§  771.     The  assimilation  of  rv  to  r{r)  is  excessively  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hmirva  'all,'  Old  Pers.  Iiariwa,  Phi.,  New 
Pars.  har. 

rv  >  v{v). 

§  772.     The  assimilation  of  rv  to  v{v)  is  not  common  either  in 
the  Indian  or  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sarva  'all,'  Prak.  savva,  etc.  (see  §  768). 
Skt.  parvata  '  mountain,'  Simh.  pava,  etc.  (see  §  768). 

b.  Iranian.     New  Pers.  ydrvar  '  friend '  besides  yavar. 

rs  >  ms. 

§  773.     The  change  of  rs  to  ms  is  very  rare  in  Indian. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  darsana  '  sight,'  Prak.  damsana,  Ass.  dar- 
Sana  (pron.  darhana),  Sindhi  darsanu. 

rs  >  s{s). 

§  774.     The  assimilation  of  rs  to  s{s)  is  quite  common  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sparsana  '  touch,'  Prak.  phasa,  Pali  pliassa, 
Hindi,  Panj.  phathsam,  Sindhi  phasami,  Guj.  phasavum,  Mar. 
phasanem. 

rsv  >  s{s). 

§  775.    The  assimilation  of  rsv  to  s{s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  parsva  '  side,'  Prak.  pdsa,  Hindi  xkis^  Panj. 
pdSj  pah,  Sindhi,  Guj.  pdse,  Mar.  palas,  pdsim,  Gyp.  pas. 

rsv  >  h{h). 

§  776.     The  assimilation  of  rsv  to  li{h)  is  exceedingly  rare  (cf. 
§  401). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  parsva  '  side,'  Panj.  pah,  pas,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §), 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  205 

rs  >  {(l)dh. 
§  777.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rs  to  {(J)dh  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  351). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  karsana  '  dragging,'  Ur.  hirhiha,  Bang,  h/r- 
han,  Hindi  Mrhiici,  Panj.  Jcarrhana,  Sindlil  harhanu,  Guj.  JcaJm- 
ravum,  Mar.  Mrhamm. 

rs  >  r{r). 

§  778.     The  assimilation  of  rs  to  r{r)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mdrgasirsa  '■  November-December,'  Apab. 
Prak.  maggasini,  Ur.  mag{h)usira,  magnsara,  Panj.  maghar, 
Sindhi  mani-gklru. 

rs  >  rs. 

§  779.  The  change  of  rs  to  rs  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
Iranian  dialects  (cf.  §  428). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hardsa  '  mane,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  hits,  Afy. 
vraz,  Bal.  biisl;  Dig.  Oss.  harm,  Tag.  hars. 

rs  >  s{s). 
§  780.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rs  to  s{s)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  407). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sirsa  'head,'  Prak.  sissa,  sisa,  Pah  s7sn, 
Hindi,  Panj.  sis,  Sindhi  sist,  Guj.  sis,  Mar.  si{>'n)s,  Simh.  sis,  his, 
isa,  ilia. 

rs,  rs  >  s{s),  s{s). 

§  781.  The  assimilation  of  rs,  rs  to  s{s),  s{s}  is  the  regular  one 
to  which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Indo-Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  varsa  '  year,'  Prak.  (inscriptions  of  Kapur  di 
Giri)  vasa,  varsa,  Ht.  Prak.  vasa,  Pali  vassa,  Gj]).  hers,  hres. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  harosa  '  mane,'  Phi.,  New  Pers.  hus,  Bal. 
husk,  etc.  (see  §  779).  Av.  karsaijdn  'they  may  drag,'  Phi. 
kasltano.  New  Pers.  kasldan,  Afy.  ksal,  Bal.  kasag,  N.  Bal. 
khasay,  Kurd,  kisdn. 

rs  >  s{s). 
§  782.     The  assimilation  of  rs  to  s{s)  occurs  frequently  in  the 
Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  408). 


206  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  s'trsa  *  head,'  Prak.  sissa,  slsa,  li  sTsa, 
Hindi,  Panj.  sis,  Sindhi  sisl,  Mar.  si{m)s,  Simh.  sis,  his,  isa,  ilia, 
etc.  (see  §  780). 

rs  >  h{h). 

§  783.     The  assimilation  of  rs  to  h(h)  is  excessively  rare  (cf. 
§  409); 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Mrsapana  '  a  certain  coin,'  Prak.  kahavana, 
Pali  kahapana,  Ur.  JcdJidna,  Bang,  hdlum,  Hindi  kahdn,  Skt. 
slrsa  'head,'  Simh.  ilia,  isa,  sis,  his,  etc.  (see  §  780).  Skt. 
varsati  '  rains,'  Pali  vassati,  Simh.  vahimi,  Maladive  vehem. 

rsn  >  Jch,  x. 

§  784.     The  assimilation  of  rsn  to  lili,  x,  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  922). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tarsna  'thirst,'  Phi.  fisn.  New  Pers.  Us, 
Waxi  taxit),  Siyn.  tcisna,  Sarq.  tur{t),  Yidg.  trusna,  Afy.  toisai, 
Bal.  tunnag,  tUnag,  N.  Bal.  thuni,  Km*d.  ti,  tarn. 

rsn  >  n{n). 
§  785.     The  assimilation  of  rsn  to  n{n)  is  quite  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tarsna  '  thirst,'  Bal.  tunnag,  tunag,  N.  Bal. 
thuni,  Kurd,  tanl,  tl,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

rsn  >  r{r). 

§  786.     The  assimilation  of  rsn  to  r{r)  is  exceedingly  rare, 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  tarsna  '  thirst,'  Sarq.  tur^i),  etc.  (see  §  784). 

rsn  >  rs. 

§  787.    The  assimilation  of  rsn  to  rs  is  excessively  rare  (cf.  §  427). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  varsni  '  virile,'  Phi.  gusan.  New  Pers.  gusn. 
Tag.  Oss.  tirs,  S.  Oss.  vtirs. 

rsn  >  rz. 

§  788.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rsn  to  rz  is  most  rare  (cf.  §  925). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  varsni  'virile,'  S.  Oss.  vurz,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 


CONSONANT-  GEO  UPS  207 

rsn  >  s{s}. 
§  789.     Tlie  assimilation  of  rsn  to  s{s)  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  tarma  'thirst/  New  Pers.  Us,  etc.  (see  §  784). 

rsn  >  sn. 
§  790.     The  reduction  of  rsn  to  sn  is  quite  common. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  tarsna  'thirst/  Phi.  tisn,  Siyn.  td§na,  Yidg. 
trnsna,  etc.  (see  §  784).  Av.  varsni  '  virile/  Phi.  gusan,  New 
Pers.  gusn,  etc.  (see  §  787). 

rsn  >  i(i). 
§  791.     Tlie   assimilation  of  rsn  to  i(i)  is  extremely  rare  (cf. 
§  429). 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  tarsna  '  thirst/  Afy.  tazai,  etc.  (see  §  784). 

rsv  >  sv. 
§  792.     The  assimilation  of  rsv  to  sv  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  karsvar  '  clime/  Phi.,  New  Pers.  kisvar. 

rs  >  111. 
§  793.    Tlie  transposition  of  rs  to  Id  is  very  rare  (cf,  §§  354,  421). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  pardsu  '  side,'  Phi.  pahluJc,  New  Pers.  ;pahlu. 

rz  >  l{l). 
§  794.    The  assimilation  of  rs  to  l{l)  is  extr  mely  rare  (cf.  §  354). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.    hardsis  'pillow,'   Plil.  hdlisn,   New   Pers. 
hdlis,  Gab.  hdlist,  Kas.  hoUsm,  holisf. 

rh  >  r{r). 
§  795.     The  assimilation  of  rh  to  r{r)  is  exceedingly  rare, 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  garJia  '  abuse,'  Biharl  gdri,  gall. 

rh  >  l{l). 
§  796.     The  assimilation  of  rh  to  l{l)  is  excessively  rare. 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  garha  '  abuse,'  Bihari  gdli,  gdri. 


208  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Ik  >  k{k). 
§  797.    The  assimilation  of  Ik  to  k{k)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ulkd  'meteor,'  Prak.,  Pali  ukka,  Hindi  Mkd, 
Sindhi  luk.  Skt.  valkala  'bark/  Prak.,  Pali  vakkala,  Sindhi 
lakaru. 

^  >  gig)' 

§  798.     Tlie  assimilation  of  Ig  to  gig)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  valgd  '  rein,'  New  Ind.  dialects  hag.  Skt. 
valguli  '  bat,'  Pali  vaggull. 

lp>p{p). 

§  799.     Tlie  assimilation  of  Ij)  to  j)(jo)  is  the  regular  one  to 

which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.      Skt.    kalpa   'time,'   Pali   kappa.      Skt.    kalpate 

'  conducts  himself,'  Mahar.  Prak.  kappae,  Pali  kappati,  Simh, 

kapa?iavd. 

Im  >  mh. 

§  800.     The  assimilation  of  Im  to  mb  is  very  rare  (cf.  §§  323, 360). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  sdlmali  '  silk-cotton  tree,'  Jaina  Prak.  sain- 
hila,  Pali  sinibalt,  Ur.  simila,  Simula,  Bang,  simul,  Hindi  semal, 
simhal,  Panj.  simahal,  simmal,  Mar.  sdmvar. 

Im  >  7n{m). 
§  801.     The  assimilation  of  Im  to  m{m)  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sdlmali  'silk-cotton  tree,'  Ur.  simila,  Simula, 
Bang,  simul,  Hindi  semal,  simhal,  Panj.  simmal,  simahal,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §).     Skt.  jdlma  '  reckless,'  Pali  jamma. 

Im  >  mv. 

§  802.     The  change  of  Im  to  mv  is  extremely  rare  in  Indian  (cf, 
§§324,360). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sdlmali  '  silk-cotton  tree,'  Mar.  sdmvar,  etc. 
(see  §  800). 


CONSONANT-  GRO  UPS  209 

§  803.     The  assimilation  of  ly  to  l{l)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kali/a  '  dawn,'  Prak.,  Pali  kalla,  Ass.,  Ur., 
Bang,  kali,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  kal,  kdlh,  Panj.  kail,  kallh,  Sindhi 
kdlh,  Guj.,  Mar.  kdl. 

ly  >  {l}lh. 

§  804.     Tlie  assimilation  of  ly  to  {l)lh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  kalya  ^  dawn,'  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  kdlh,  kal, 
Panj.  kallh,  kail,  Sindlil  kalh,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  mulya 
'  price,'  Prak.  fmdla,  molla,  Kasm.  mol,  Ur.  mula,  Bang.,  Hindi 
mol,  Panj.  mull,  Sindlil  mulhu,  Mar.  mol. 

Iv  >  h{h). 

§  805.    Tlie  assimilation  of  Iv  to  h{h)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  372). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  halvaja  '  reed,'  Ptlli  x^ahhaja. 

Iv  >  l{l). 

§  806.     The  assimilation  of  Iv  to  1{I)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Mlva  'wood-apple,'  Pali  hilla,  hella.  New  Ind. 
dialects  hcl.     Skt.  khalvdta  'bald,'  Prak.  khallula,  Pali  khalldta. 


vy  >  l){b). 

§  807.  The  assimilation  of  vy  to  h{b)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  372). 
In  Bangali  vy  is  regularly  pronounced  h. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sivyati  'sews,'  Pali  sihhati.  Skt.  vyat'ita 
•  passed,'  Ur.  hitibd,  Hindi  bitnd,  Panj.  hitUand,  Guj.  vafavum. 
Skt.  vyamsana  'division,'  Hindi  hdchnd,  Panj.  bamchuand, 
Sindhi  virchanu.  Skt.  vydghra  '  tiger,'  Prak.  vaggha,  Pali  vyag- 
gha,  Hindi  bdgh,  Sindhi  vdghu,  Mar.  vdgh,  Simli,  vag. 

P 


210  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

vy  >  v{v). 
§  808.     The  assimilation  of  vy  to  v{v)  occurs  very  frequently  in 
the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vyat'ita  '  passed,'  Guj.  vafavum,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §).  Skt.  vydghra  'tiger,'  Prak.  vaggha,  Sindhi  vaghu,  Mar. 
vagh,  Simh.  vag,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

vr  >  v{v). 
§  809.    The  assimilation  of  vr  to  v{v)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  urvasi  nom.  prop.,  Prak.  uvvasi.  Skt.  vrlhi 
'  rice,'  Prak.,  Pali  Villi,  Simh.  vl. 


sc  >  c(c). 
§  810.     The  assimilation  of  sc  to  c{c)  is  not  very  common. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dscarya  'wonderful,'  Prak.  acchcra,  Pali 
accMra,  acchariya,  Hindi,  Panj,  acaraj,  Sindhi  acaraj,  acarat. 
Skt.  pasciXt  'behind,'  Prak.,  Pali  pacclid,  Aqb. pice,  pace  (pron. 
pise,  pdsi'),  Kasm.  pat{h),  Ur.  pacJie,  Bang,  pdchd,  picM  (pron. 
pdsd,pise),  Hindi  pdche, pdchu,picJm,  Vsca^.  piche,  piclmh,  Sindhi 
poe,  pudm,  Guj.  paclie,  pacM,  pdcho,  Simh.  2)cis{u). 

sc  >  {c)ch. 
§  811.     The   assimilation  of  sc  to  {c)ch  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vrsciha  'scorpion,'  Prak.  vimcua,  vicchua, 
vimchua,  Pali  vicchika,  Nrdp.  hicchu,  Kasm.  htc,  hUch,  Ur., 
Bang,  hiclid,  E.  Hindi  hiccu,  Hindi  hichud,  Panj.  viccliu,  Sindhi 
vichilm,  Guj.  vicJm,  vimchu,  Mar.  vihcii,  vimclmm.  Skt.  pascdt 
'behind,'  Prak.,  Pali  pacchd,  Ur.  pache,  Bang,  pdchd,  piche, 
Hindi  pdclva,pdchu,  plchu,  Panj.  piche,  pichom,  Guj.  pachr,pachl, 
pdcho,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

sc  >  s{s). 
§  812.     The  assimilation  of  sc  to  s{s)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  400). 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  211 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pascat  *■  behind/  Ass.  pise,  pase  (written 
piche,  pdcJie),  Bang.  j>«5«,  pise  (written  pacha,  piche),  Simli. 
pas{u),  etc.  (see  §  810). 

Syncope  of  so. 

§  813.     The  loss  of  internal  sc  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian,     Skt,  pascat  '  behind,'  Sindhi  pde,  puam,  etc.  (see 

§   810).     Skt.    trayascatvarhnsat    '  forty-three,'    Prak.    teallsa, 

Kasm.  teyatfijih,  Bihari  tamtalis,  Hindi  tcalis,  tetCilisa,  tcihhtcllis, 

Sindhi  tefdllh. 

sm  >  m{m), 

§  814.     The  assimilation  of  sm  to  m{m)  is  the  regular  one  to 

which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  smasru  'beard,'  Prak.  mdsu,  massu,  mamsu, 

Pali   massu,   Ass.    moc,  Bang,    modi,  Bihari   momcli,    miimcli, 

Hindi  miichcm,  Panj,   mucch,   Sindhi  much,   Guj.  much.     Skt. 

smasdna  'cemetery,'  Prak.  masdna,  Mag,  Prak.  masdna,  Jaina 

Prak.  siydna,  susdna,  Pali  siisdna,  Ur.  masdna,  Bang,  masdn, 

Hindi  masdn,  Panj.  masdn,  Sindhi  masdnu,  Guj.  masdn,  Mar. 

masan. 

sm  >  s[s). 

§  815.     The  assimilation  of  sm  to  s{s)  is  comparatively  rare  (cf. 

§  400). 

a.  Indian.      Skt.  smasdna  'cemetery/  Jaina   Prak.    siydna, 

susdna,  Pali  susdna,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).     Skt.  ras at i  'ray,' 

Prak,  rassi,  Pali  rasmi,  ramsi,  Ass.  raci  (pron.  rasi),  Kasm.  ras, 

Ur.,  Bang,  rasi,  E.   Hindi,  Hindi,  Panj.  rassd,  rassl,   Sindhi 

ras'i,  Mar.  rassl. 

sr  >  mj. 

§  816.     The  change  of  sr  to  mj  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  350  ?). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  asru  '  tear,'  Prak.  amsu,  Pali  assu,  Kasm.^ 
dus,  asil,  Naip.  dmsu,  Ur.  omjhu,  dmsu,  Bihari,  Hindi  dmsu, 
Panj.  ahjhu,  Sindhi  hanj,  Guj.  dmju,  Mar,  amsu,  dsu. 

sr  >  mjh. 
§  817.     The  change  of  6'>'  to  mjh  is  excessively  rare, 

P  3 


212  IN  DO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  aiV^t 'tear,' Ur.  omjhu,  amsi'i,  Panj.  ahjhu, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

sr  >  s{^). 
§  818.     The  assimilation  of  sr  to  s{s}  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sravana  'hearing,'  Ur.  suniha,  Bang,  sunan, 
Hindi  simna,  Panj.  sunana,  Sindhi  smianu.  Skt.  svasril 
'  mother-in-law,'  Pali  sassu,  Ur.  sasa,  Bang,  sets,  Hindi  sds,  Panj. 
sassu,  Sindhi  sasu,  Guj.  sdmsfi,  Mar.  5«srt. 

ir  >  s{s). 

§  819.  The  assimilation  of  sr  to  6{.s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  400). 
a.  Indian.  Skt.  smasru  '  beard,'  Pmk.  nidsii,  massu,  mamsu, 
Pali  massu,  Ass.  tnuc,  Bang.  rnOclt,  Bihari  momch,  nmmch, 
Hindi  omlchem,  Panj.  mucch,  Sindhi  much,  Guj.  much.  Skt. 
asru  '  tear,'  Prak.  amsii,  Pali  assii,  Naip.  amsil,  Ur.  dmsu, 
oihjhii,  Bihari,  Hindi  dmsu,  Mar.  amsu,  dsu,  etc.  (see  §  816). 
Skt.  svasrfi  '  mother-in-law,'  Pali  sassu,  Bang,  sds,  Hindi  sds, 
Panj.  sassH,  Sindhi  sasu,  Guj.  sdmsil.  Mar.  sasiT,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §).  Skt.  sravana  '  hearing,'  Hindi  siinnd,  Panj.  sunana, 
Sindhi  sunanu,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

sZ  >  s{s). 

§  820.     The  assimilation  of  si  to  s(s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  400). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  slesma  '  slmie,'  Prak.  simhha,  Pali  silesuma, 
sPthha,  Siihh.  scm{a). 

sv  >  s{s). 

§  821.  The  assimilation  of  sv  to  s{s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  400). 
a.  Indian.  Skt.  asva  '  horse,'  Prak.  assa,  dsa,  Pali  assa, 
Sirhh,  as.  Skt.  Isvara  '  lord,'  Prak.  Isara,  Pali  issara,  Hindi, 
Panj.  isar,  cf.  also  \i\nd\\\ paramesuru.  Skt.  svasru  'mother-in- 
law,'  Pali  sassu,  Ur.  sdsa,  Bang,  ids,  Hindi  sds,  Panj.  sassil, 


CONSONANT-GROUFS  21o 

Sindlii  sasH,  Guj.  Sflmsil,  Mar.  scisil.     Skt.  ^vasa  '  breath,'  Prak., 
Pali  sdsa,  Sindhi  sCihu. 


.d-  >  lil-). 

§  822.     Tlie  assimilation  of  .s7.'  to  l{Jc)  is  not  frequent. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  dusl'jfa  'evil/  Prak.  diiJckada,  {inscriiptionfi 
of  Girnar)  dnJcata,  Pali  dnJckafa,  dukJcafa.  Skt.  susha  'dry,' 
Prak.  sukht,  sul'l'ha,  Pali  sulckha,  Ass.  sulcana  (pron.  liukana), 
Kasm.  holxh,  Ur.,  Bang,  sidcd^  Hindi  silkhd,  Panj.  sukJihd,  sukka, 
Sindhi  suko,  Gnj.  sulcho,  Mar.  52<A*a,  stikJid.  Skt.  niskarsana 
'dragging  out,' Pali  nikkaddJia,  Hindi  nikdland,  iiikcisanajFsinj. 
7iik{k)dsand,  nikkdland,  Sindhi  nikdranum,  nikeranu,  nikarm- 
num,  Guj.  nikdlavmh,  nikdsavum,  Mar.  nikdfanem,  nikdl. 

sk  >  {k)kh. 

§  823.     The  assimilation  of  sk  to  {k)kh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  suska  '  dry,'  Prak.  sukkJia,  sukka,  Pali  suk- 
kha,  Kasm.  Jiukh,  Hindi  silkhd,  Panj.  sukkhd,  siikkd,  Guj.  sukho, 
Mar.  sukhd,  stikd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  puskara  '  pool,' 
Prak.,  Pali  jjokkhara,  Ur.  pokhari,  Bang,  imkur,  Hindi,  Mar. 
pokliar. 

?t  >  tit)' 
§  824.     The  assimilation  of  sf  to  f{t)  is  quite  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nirsfa  '  polished,'  Prdi  maiia,  matfJia.  Skt. 
sasti  'sixty,'  Prak.  saWil,  Kasm.  sdifh,  sefh,  Ur.  sdtJiie,  Bang. 
sdetha,  Biharl  sdfjii,  Hindi  sdth,  Panj.  saWi,  Sindhi  sathi,  Guj., 
Mar.  sdth,  Sirhh.  sdta. 

St  >  {f)f]i. 

§  825.    The  assimilation  of  .5^  to  {f)fli  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  yasti  'staff,'  Prak.  latthi,  Saur.  Frak.  jatthi, 
Pali  latthi,  Ur.,  Bang.  Idtht,  Hindi  IdfM,  ldt{i),  Panj.  latthi, 
Sindhi  Jathl,  Guj.  lath,  Idf,  Mar.  latih.    Skt.  astdu  'eight,'  Prak., 


214  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Pall  affJio,  Kasm.  ath,  Ur,  dfha,  Bang,  dfa,  Biharl,  Hindi  dfh, 
Panj.  attli,  Sindhl  afJi,  Guj.,  Mar.  dfh.  Skt,  sasfi  'sixty,'  Prak. 
satthi,  Kasm.  sdith,  seth,  Ur.  sdthie,  Bang,  sdetha,  Biharl  sdthi^ 
Hind!  sdth,  Panj.  satth,  Sindhl  safhi,  Guj.,  Mar.  sdth. 


st  > 

§  826.     The  assimilation  of  st  to  d{d)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  192). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vestaka  '  enclosure,'  Pali  vefhaJca,  Ass.  her, 
Naip.  bar,  Kasm.  vdd,  vdr,  Ur.  hherd,  herhd,  Bang,  herd,  Hindi, 
Panj.  herhd,  Multani  verhd,  Sindhl  vadeho,  verhd.  Mar.  vcdlm. 
Skt.  lestu  '  clod,'  Mahar.  Prak.  letthuya,  Pali  leddu. 


<^  827.     The  assimilation  of  st  to  {d)d1i  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  193). 


st  >  {d)dh 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vestaJca  '  enclosure,'  Ur.  hcrhd,  hherd,  Hindi, 
Panj.  herhd,  Multani  verhd,  Sindhl  verhd,  vadeho.  Mar.  vedhd, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  rust  a  'angry,'  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj. 
rudh. 

?tr  >  {{)t. 
§  828.     The  assimilation  of  str  to  {t)t  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  tistra  *  camel.'  Prak.  iifta,  Kasm.  {v)il)hth, 
Biharl  i({ni)t,  Sindlii  uthu. 

sir  >  {t)th. 

§  829.     Tlie  assimilation  of  str  to  {t)fh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  rnaJtdr/jstra  '  great  kingdom,'  Pali  maJidrat- 
(ha,  Sindlii  inardthl,  Guj.  niaretho. 


str  > 

§  830.     The  assimilation  of  str  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  damsira  '  tusk,'  Prak.  dddhd,  Pali  ddthd,  Ur. 
dddhij),  Bang,  ddrij),  Hindi  dddh{J),  Panj.  ddhadij),  Sindhl  ddth, 
(Iddah,  Guj.  dddhl,  ddhdr,  Mar.  dddh,  Siihh.  dala. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  215 

sir  >  {d)(lh. 
§  831.     Tlie  assimilation  of  str  to  {d)dh  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  damstra  'tusk,'  Prak.  dcidhct,  Ur.,  Hindi 
dddh{i),  Guj.  dadhi,  ddhdr,  Mar.  dddh,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

str  >  1{I). 
§  832.     The  assimilation  of  str  to  1{T)  is  excessively  rare  (cf.  §  213). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  damstra  '  tusk/  Siihh.  data,  etc.  (see  §  830). 

str  >  h{h). 

§  833.     The  assimilation  of  str  to  h{h)  is  exceedingly  rare  (cf. 

§  206  ?). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  damstra  '  tusk/  Panj.  ddhad{l),  Guj.  ddhdr, 

dddhi,  etc.  (see  §  830). 

sth  >  t{t). 

§  834.     The  assimilation  of  sth  to  t{t)  is  very  uncommon. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  kostha   'granary/   Pali   kottha,    New   Ind. 

dialects  kott,  kotth. 

sth  >  {t)th. 

§  835.     The  assimilation  of  sth  to  {t)th  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  prstha  'back/  Apab.  Prak.  patthi,  pitthij 
putthi,  Pali  pitfha,  Ass.,  Vv.  xnthi.  Bang.  2nthi,  pit,  Hindi  pith, 
Fa.n].  pitth,  putth,  Sindhi  puthi,  G\x].  puih,  pith,!^^^.  path.  Gyp. 
pusto.  Skt.  gusthl  '  assembly,'  Prak.  gotthl,  Pali  gottha,  Sindhi 
gothu,  Mar.  gotthl.  Skt.  ostha  '  lip,'  Mahar.  Prak.  ottha,  uttha, 
Pali  ottha,  Kasm.  vuth,  Ur.  otha,  Biharl  ho{ni)th,  Hindi  omth, 
Panj.  homth,  Guj.  o(/i,  Aof,  Mar.  urnfh.  Gyp.  VHsf. 


5//i  > 

§  836.     The  assimilation  of  sth  to  d{d)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.      Skt.  kustha  'leprosy,'  Ur.  kudha,  Bang,  kudi, 
Sindhi  korhu,  Guj.,  Mar.  kor,  korh,  kohor. 

sth  >  {d)dh. 
§  837.     The  assimilation  of  sth  to  {d)dh  is  extremely  rare. 


216  INDO-IBANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a,  Indian.  Skt,  histha  '  leprosy,'  Ur,  Jcudha,  Sindhi  Tcorhu, 
Guj.,  Mar.  Jcorh,  hor,  kohur,  etc,  (see  preceding  §). 

sn  >n{n). 
§  838.     The  assimilation  of  m  to  >)(«)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  usna  '  hot/  Mahar.  Prak.,  Pali  unha  (but 
Pali  sltunndka  '  heat  and  cold '  besides  sitimhaka),  Sindhi  uh, 
Guj.  unhuni,  Mar.  unha,  Simh.  (Jijitnu. 

sn  >  n{n). 
§  839.     The  assimilation  of  sn  to  n{n)  occurs  but  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  usna  'hot,'  Simh.  {h)imu,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

sn  >  nil. 

§  840.  The  change  of  .sii^  to  nh  is  the  regular  one  to  which  this 
consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Middle  Indian  dialects,  but  it  is 
very  rare  in  the  Middle  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.     Skt.   usna  'hot/  Mahar.    Prak.   unlia,  etc.    (see 

§  838).     Skt.  hrsna  nom.  prop.,  Prak.,  Pali  Jcanha,  Hindi,  Panj. 

Mnh,  Jcanhdi,  Sindhi  kdnu,  Guj.  kdnho,  Mar,  kanhohd. 

sn  >  n{n). 
§  841.    The  assimilation  of  5^  to  7i{n)  occurs  frequently  (cf.  §  218). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.    sita  '  cold '  +  usna  '  hot,'  Pali   sttumiaka, 
sltunhaka,  Mar.  tlnha,  etc.  (cf.  §  838).     Skt.  krsna  nom.  prop., 
Sindhi  kctnu,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

sn  >  nh. 
^  842.     Tlie  change  of  sn  to  nh  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  usna  'hot,'  Guj.  unhum,  etc.  (see  §  838). 
Skt.  hrsna  nom.  prop.,  Hindi,  Panj.  kdnh,  kanhdi,  Guj.  kanho, 
Mar.  kanhohd,  etc.  (see  §  840). 

sn  >  h{h). 
§  843.     Tlio  assimilation  of  m  to  h{h)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  409). 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  217 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  trma  '  thirst,'  Prak.  tanJia,  Pali  finJid,  tasinci, 
Panj.  tiha,  Sindhi  tih,  Mar.  tahan. 

sp  >p{p). 
§  844.     Tlie  assimilation  of  s})  to  j>(^;)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  Mspa  'tear,  smoke,' Prak.  'balm  'tear,'  hapjiha 
'  smoke,'  Saur.  Prak.,  Pali  hajjpa,  Ass.  hJicip,  Kasm.  haha,  Ur., 
Bang.  hJu(p),  E.  Hindi  hd{m)ph,  Hindi  hlidj),  hd{m)pJi,  Panj. 
hhcipJi,  Sindhi  hd2)h,  Guj.  hd{)h)ph,  Mar.  vdp)h.  Skt.  puspa 
'■  flower,'  Prak.,  Pali  pupplia.,  Kasm.  pos,  Biliarl  phup,  philph, 
Old  Hindi  puhtip,  Hindi  phup,  Guj.,  Mar.  jj/«7Z.  Skt.  nisputra 
'  sonless,'  Sindhi  nipiitro. 

sp  >  {p)ph. 

§  845.     The  assimilation  of  sp  to  [p)pli  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hdspa  '  tear,  smoke,'  Prak.  happlia  '  smoke,' 
})dha  '  tear,'  E.  Hindi  hd{m)ph,  Hmdl  'bd{m)p}i,  hJidj),  Panj.  hhdpli, 
Sindhi  hdph,  Guj.  hd{'>h)ph,  Mar.  iKph,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 
Skt.  puspa  'flower,'  Prak.,  Pali  puppJia,  Bihari  plulpli,  pliilp, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

sp  >  Jl{Jl). 

§  846.     The  assimilation  of  sp)  to  Ji{Ji)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §§  421, 300). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  bdspa  '  tear,  smoke,'  Prak.  hdha  '  tear,'  hap- 
pha  '  smoke/  Kasm.  hdha,  etc.  (see  §  844). 

srn  >  {h)bh. 

§  847.     The  assimilation  of  sm  to  {h)hh  is  excessively  rare  (cf. 
§  323). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  usman  '  hot  season,'  Prak.  nmJid,  Old  Hindi 
lihh,  Mar.  nmlial.  Skt.  grisma  'hot  season,'  ^vi\k. gimha,  Apab, 
Prak,  (jimllia,  Pali  gimha,  Old  Hindi  (jarlsam,  Mar.  ghhhh,g'ini. 

sm  >  m{m). 
§  848.     The  assimilation  of  sm  to  m{m)  is  very  rare. 


218  IXDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  grisma  '  hot  season,'  Mar.  gim^  gimhli,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §). 

sm  >  mil. 

§  849.     The  change  of  sm  to  mh  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  409). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  grisma  'hot  season,'  Prak.,  Pali  gimha,  etc. 
(see  §  847).     Skt.  usman  '  hot  season,'  Prak.  umhd,  Mar.  umJial, 
etc.  (see  §  847). 

S1J  >  {Jc)7cJi. 

§  850.     The  change  of  sy  to  {J{)lh  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  404). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sisya  '  pupil,'  Prak.  sTsa,  Pali  sissa,  Sindhi 
siJchu. 

stj  >  ss. 

§  851.     Tlie  assimilation  of  sy  to  55  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt,  imsya^  pdnsya  '  December- January,'  Prak. 
2)usa,  Ur.  jmsa,  Bang.  j;aw5,  Hindi  j^us,  Panj.  poh,  Sindhi  j^olm. 

sy  >  s{s). 

§  852.    Tlie  assimilation  of  sy  to  5(5)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  susyati  'dries,'  Prak.  susaij  Pali  sussati. 
Skt.  pusya,  pdusya  '  December- January,'  Frsik.])usa,  Hindi  jms, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

sy  >  h{h). 

§  853.     The  change  of  sy  to  h{h)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  409). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hhavisydmi  '  I  shall  be,'  Prak.  hohami,  ho- 
himi,  hossdmi,  Pali  hhavissdmi.  Skt.  pusya,  pdusija  'December- 
January,'  Panj.  ^>o/i,  Sindhi  ^oAm,  etc.  (see  §  851). 


sk  >  h^Jc). 

§  854.     The  assimilation  of  sh  to  h{k)  is  very  frequent  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 


CONSONANT-  GEO  UPS  219 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  taslaira  'tliief,'  Prak.,  Pali  tallarn.  Skt. 
sJcandha  '  shoulder,'  Prak.  lihand{h)a,  Pali  lihandlia,  Ur.,  Bang., 
Hindi  IdmdJid,  Panj.  Jcannh,  Jimhdhd,  Sindhi,  Guj.  TiCimdho, 
Mar.  TxhCmdd,  Ehi  kamda,  Maladive  Jwdii. 

sk  >  {l)7ch. 

§  855.     The  assimilation  of  sJc  to  {Ji)lh  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  skandha  'shoulder,'  Prak.  lhand(li)a,  Pali 
kJiandlia,  Mar.  hhdmdd,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

SG  >  c{c). 

§  856.    The  assimilation  of  sc  to  c{c)  is  found  occasionally  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pascat  '  afterward,'  Old  Pers.  pasd^  Phi., 
New  Pers.  pas,  Kas.  pac,  Kuhr.  pas,  pas,  Bal.  j,a^,  ILuvdi.  pdsi, 
Dig.  Oss,  fastdga,  Tag.  fastag. 

sc  >  s{s). 
§  857.     The  assimilation  of  sc  to  s{s)  is  not  uncommon  in  the 
Iranian  dialects  (cf.  §§  419,  166). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pascat  '  afterward,'  Kuhr.  pas,  pas,  Bal.  pas, 
Kurd,  pdsi,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 

sc  >  sJc. 
§  858.     The  change  of  sc  to  sJi  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  419). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  scindayeiti  '  breaks,'  Phi.  sJcastano,  New 
Pers.  sihisfan,  Oss,  sadhtin,  satthin. 

sc  >  s{s). 
§  859.     The  assimilation  of  sc  to  s{s)  is  not  infrequent  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pascat  'afterward,'  Old  Pers.  pasd.  Phi., 
New  Pers.  pas,  Kuhr.  pas,  pas,  etc.  (see  §  856),  Av.  scindayeiti 
'  breaks,'  Oss.  sadhtin,  satthin,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


220  IXDO-IRAXIAN  PHONOLOGY 

St  >  {Jc)lJi. 

§  860.     Tlie  change  of  5^  to  {Jc)Jch  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  stamhha  'post/  Prak.  Jchamhha,  tJiamhha, 
Pali  fhambha,  Ur.  Jc]ianihh{d),  Jihmh{ha),  Bang,  Jihamhd,  Hindi, 
Panj.  thamh,  Sindhi  tharnhJiif,  Guj.  JcJidmh,  khamhh,  tJiamh,  Mar. 
Jihdnih,  Siriih.  fcit'nha.     [See  now  Pischel,  §  306.] 

sf  >  tit). 

§  861.    Tlie  assimilation  of  st  to  tit)  is  excessively  rare  (cf.  §  224). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  stamhha  '  post/  Simh.  fa>J<6«,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

5^   >  fit). 

§  862.     The  assimilation  of  st  to  tit)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  stdimja  '■  thief/  Jaina  Prak.  teniya.  Skt. 
hyastana  'yesterday's/  Pali  Ifiyattana.  Skt.  hasta  'hand/ 
Prak.,  Pali  hattha,  Ass.  lifit,  hath,  Kasm.  ath  (but  hast  '  ele- 
phant '),  Ur,,  Bang,  hdta,  Biharl,  Hindi  hath,  Panj.  hatth,  Sindhi 
hathu,  Guj.  hdth,  Mar.  hat,  Simh.  ata,  Gyp.  vast. 

b.  Iranian.  Lat.  sttirnns  '  starling,'  Old  High  German  stdra, 
New  Pers.  tar. 

st  >  it)th. 

§  863.      The  assimilation  of  st  to  it)th  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  pustalia  '  book,'  Prak.  potthaa,  Pali  pothaka, 
Kasm.  jiiith,  Ur.  pothd,  Sindhi,  Guj.,  Mar,  pothi,  Simh.  })ota. 
Skt,  hasta  'hand,'  Prfik.,  Pali  hattha,  Ass,  hdth,  hat,  Kasm,  ath, 
Bihari,  Hindi  hdth,  Panj,  hatth,  Sindhi  hathu,  Guj,  hdth,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §).  Skt.  p'astara  '  stone,'  Prak.,  Pali  patthara, 
Ur.  pathara,  ^ang.  pdthar,  Hindi,  Fan^- patthar,  Sindhi  patham, 
Guj.,  Mar.  patthar.  Skt.  stana  '  female  breast,'  Pali  thaiia,  Ur., 
Bang,  thana,  Hindi  than,  Panj.  than,  Sindlil  thanu,  Guj.  than, 
Mar.  thand,  Simh,  tana. 

st  >  sis). 

§  864,     The  assimilation  of  5/  to  sis)  is  very  rare. 


I  "f 


V, 

consonant-groups''^''^"'''^  221 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  rdsta  '  right,'  Phi.  mst,  New  Pcrs. 
ras,  vast,  Oss.  rasf,  rasth. 

sty  >  th,  th. 
§  865.     The  assimilation  of  sfif  to  th,  th,  is  excessively  rare, 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  stydna  '■  idleness/  Prak.,  Pali  thina,  thina. 

sth  >  {k)Mi. 
§  866.     The  change  of  sth  to  {J:)l-h  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sthdnu  'firm,  Siva,'  Prak.  Jchdmi,  Jchannit, 
'firm,'  thdnu  '  Siva.'     [See  now  Pischel,  §  309.] 

sth  >  tit). 
§  867.     Tlie  assimilation  of  sth  to  t{t)  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  asthi  'bone,' Prak.,  Prdi  atthi,  Ur.,  Bang. 
hdda,  Hindi  had,  haddJ,  Panj.  haddl,  Guj.,  Mar.  had,  Simh.  dfa. 

sth  >  {tyh. 
§  868.     Tlie  assimilation  of  sth  to  {t)fh  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  238). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sthdna  'place,'  Prak.  thdna,  thdna,  Pali 
thdna,  Naip.  thcmi,  Ur.  thand,  thdna.  Bang,  thand,  thdn,  Hindi 
thannd,  thdna,  Panj.  than,  thdna,  Sindhi  thdnu,  thdnii,  Guj.  than, 
than.  Mar.  than,  thdr,  Simh.  tana,  tana.  Gyp.  tlian. 

sth  >  d{d). 
§  869.     The  assimilation  of  sth  to  did)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  astJii  '  bone,'  Ur.,  Bang.  ]idda,  Hindi  hdd, 
haddl,  Panj.  haddi,  Guj.,  Mar.  had,  etc.  (see  §  867). 

sth  >  t{t). 
§  870.     Tlie  assimilation  of  sth  to  t{t)  is  exceedingly  rare  (cf. 
§  240). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sthira  'firm,'  Prak.,  Pali  thira,  Ur.  tJilra, 
Hindi  thir,  Simh.  tara.  Skt.  sthalt  'kettle,'  Pali  thdVi,  Ur., 
Panj.  thdU,  Guj.  thdlO,  Mar.  thdld,  Suhh.  tali,  Maladive  tell. 


222  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Stll  >  {t)th. 

§  871.  Tlie  assimilation  of  sih  to  {t)fJi,  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects  and  in 
North  Balucl. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sthana  '■  place,'  Prak,  thana,  thdna,  Naip. 
tham,  Ur.  thdnd,  tJiand,  Bang,  than,  thand,  Hindi  thdnd, 
thannd,  Panj.  thdnd,  fhmind,  than,  Sindhi  tlidnu,  fhdnu,  Guj. 
than,  tMn,  Mar.  thdr,  than,  Gyp.  than,  etc,  (see  §  868).  Skt, 
sthira  'firm,'  Prak,,  Pali  fhira,  Ur,  thira,  etc,  (see  preceding  §). 

b.  Iranian.  Av,,  Old  Pers,  -stdna  '  standing,'  Phi,,  New 
Pers.  -stan,  N.  Bal.  than,  Kurd,  sun. 

sth  >  st. 

§  872,     The  deaspirization  of  sth  to  st  is  very  rare  (cf,  §  240), 

a.  Indian,  Skt,  grhastha  '  householder,'  Pali  gahaiiha,  Bihar! 
girhast,  Hindi  grihast,  Panj.  g{a)risati,  Sindhi  grihastu,  Guj, 
grastha  (semi-tatsama), 

sth  >  s{s). 

§  873.    The  assimilation  of  sth  to  s{§)  is  extremely  rare  (cf,  §  419), 

b.  Iranian,  Av.,  Old  Pers.  -stdna  *  standing,'  Kurd,  sun, 
etc.  (see  §  871). 

sn  >  nh. 

§  874,     Tlie  change  of  sn  to  nh  is  very  rare  (cf,  §§  421,  277), 

a,  Indian,  Skt.  sndna  'bathing,'  Apab,  Prak.  nhdnu,  Pali 
fiahdna,  sindna,  Hindi  nhdnd,  Panj.  nhdiXnd,  Guj,  nahdn,  Mar. 
nahdn,  ndhanem, 

sn  >  7i{n). 

§  875.  The  assimilation  of  sn  to  n{n)  occurs  both  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects.    It  is  more  frequent  in  the  latter  group. 

a,  Indian.  Skt,  sneha  'love,'  Prak.  Qieha,  sineha,  Apab. 
Prak,  nC'hn,  Prdi  s{i)neha,  Bihar!  m'h,  Sindhi  mmhu,  saneho. 

b.  Iranian,  Av,  snaoha  '  cloud,'  Bal.  nod,  N.  Bal,  noh.  Skt. 
snusar  '  daughter-in-law,'  Afy.  nzor,  Bal.  nasdr,  Oss.  n{v)ostha. 
Av.  snavarj  'bow-string,'  Dig,  Oss.  navr,  Tag.  nvar. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  223 

sn  >  nh. 

§  876.  The  change  of  sn  to  nh  is  not  infrequent  in  the  Indian 
dialects  (cf.  §  421). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  snana '  bathing/  Hindi  nhana,  Panj.  nJiaund, 
etc.  (see  §  874). 

sp  >P{P)- 
§  877.     The  assimilation  of  sp  to  p{p)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  293). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vanaspati  'tree,'  Prak.  vanassai,  vanapphai, 
Pali  vanappati.  Skt.  sparsa  '  touch,'  Prak.  pliarisa,  Pali  phassa, 
Ass.  ^/pas,  Bang,  sparsa  (pron.  porso),  Hindi,  Panj.  paras,  Guj. 
paras,  Mar.  paras. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  spdTdza  '  spleen,'  Phi.  spars,  New  Pers. 
supurs,  Ka§.  asiml,  aspol,  Tat  siipul,  Kurd.  piHk. 

sp  >  {p)ph. 

§  878.  The  assimilation  of  sp  to  (i))i?A  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  languages. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  sparsa  '  touch,'  Prak.  pharisa,  Pali  pJiassa, 
etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Skt.  spandana  '  throb,'  Prak.  pliamdana, 
Pali  pliandana,  Hindi  pliamdana,  Panj.  phamdand.  Mar.  pJidm- 
danem. 

sp  >  s{s). 

§  879.  Tlie  assimilation  of  S2)  to  5(5)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  In  the 
Indian  dialects,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vanaspati  'tree,'  Prak.  vanassa'i,  vanapphai, 
etc.  (see  §  877).  Skt.  hrhaspatl  nom,  prop.,  Prak.  hihassai, 
hhaassai,  'baliapx)ai,  hhaapphai. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  span  'dog,'  Old  Pers,  (Median)  0-770x0,  Phi, 
sali,  sag,  New  Pers,  sag,  Gab.  sahd,  savd,  Kas.  ashd,  aspd,  Samn. 
asha,  Tal.  sip>d,  Afy.  spai,  Kurd.  salt.  Av.  aspa  '  horse,'  Old 
Pers.  asa,  aspa.  Phi.,  New  Pers.  asp,  Tat  as.  Wax!  yas,  Minj, 
yas{a)p,  Afy.  as,  Bal.  {}i)aps,  Kurd,  hasp.  Dig.  Oss,  afsa,  Tag, 


224  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

yafs.     Skt.  asvafam  '  mule,' Plil.,  New  Pers.  astar,  Bal.  istal, 
N.  Bal.  hastal,  Kurd,  istlr,  histir. 

sp  >  spJi,  sf. 
§  880.     The  aspirization  of  sp  to  sph^  sf,  is  not  common. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  gaospdnta  'holy  kine,'  Phi.  gospand,  New 
Pers.  gosfand,  gospand.  Av.  spacta  'white,'  Plil.  spet,  New 
Pers.  safed,  siped,  isped,  Zaf.  siihO,  Kas.  ashe,  Kulir.  ashed,  Afy, 
spin,  Kurd.  {i)sxn. 

sp  >  sb. 
§  881.     The   softening   of  sp  to  sb  is  not  uncommon   in  the 
Iranian  dialects  (cf.  §  290). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  52?aefa 'white,' Zaf.  siXbB,  Kas.  a5?>e,  Kuhr. 
asbrxl,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Av.  span  '  dog,'  Gab.  saha,  sava, 
Kas.  asba,  aspd,  Samn.  asba,  etc.  (see  §  879). 

spli  >  {Jc)Jch. 
§  882.     The  assimilation  of  sph  to  {h)7ch  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  SjyhotaJia  ^  ho\\,'  Prak.  khodaa,  Faili  jihdf a, 
Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Panj.  phfjda,  Sindhi  phurdi.  [So  the  Prakrit 
grammarians,  falsely.     See  now  Pischel,  §  311.] 

sph  >  {p)ph. 
§  883.     The  assimilation  of  sx)h  to  {p)ph  is  the  regular  one  to 
which  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  spliuia  '  thrilled,'  Prak.  plwda,  Pali  pihida. 
Skt.  sphotaka  'boil,'  VslYi plwia,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi,  Vany  phoda, 
Sindhi  plmnll. 

sm  >  mil. 
§  884.     The  change  of  sm  to  mil  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group   is    subject   in   the  Middle  Indian   dialects 
(cf.  §  421). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  asmi  '  am,'  Prak.  amhi,  Pali  amhi,  asmi. 
Skt.  vismaya  '  wonder,'  Prak.  vimhaa,  Pali  vimhaya,  Smdhi 
visdl. 


CONSONANT-GROUrS  225 

sm  >  s{s). 

§  885,     Tlie  assimilation  of  sm  to  s{s)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  vismaya  'wonder,'  Sindhi  visal,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §).  Skt.  smrti  '  memory/  Hindi,  Panj.  surat,  Sindhi 
surti.  Skt.  smarati  'remembers,'  Prak.  sarai,  stimarat,  Pali 
sarati,  smnarati. 

sm  >  sh. 

§  886.     The  change  of  sm  to  sh  is  excessively  rare  (cf.  §  323). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.,  Old  Pers.  asman  'heaven,'  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
dsman,  Gab.  ashan,  Bal.  asmdn,  N.  Bal.  azman. 

sm  >  2[2). 

§  887.    The  assimilation  of  sm  to  ^(^)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §§  825, 420). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  aesma  '  fuel,'  Plil.  {h)('mm,  Paz.,  New  Pers. 
hezam,  Gab.  izma,  Kas.,  Kuhr.  {Ji)emm,  Kurd,  hazang. 

sm  >  zm. 
§  888.     The  softening  of  sm  to  zm  is  rare  (cf.  §  420). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  aesma  'fuel,'  Gab.  izma^  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding ^). 

sm  >  zm. 
§  889.     The  change  of  sm  to  zm  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  asman  'heaven,'  N,  Bal,  azmdn,  etc.  (see 
§  886), 

sy  >  U)jh. 

§  890.     The  change  of  sjf  to  {j}jh  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hdmsya,  hamsa  '  bell-metal,'  Prak.  Jcathsia, 
Pali  Jcamsa,  Ur.,  Bang.,  Hindi  hdmsn^  Pimj.  kdnisi,  Sindlil 
kanijho,  Guj.  kdmsum,  Mar.  Tidmsefh  (cf.  also  Prak.  tujjha  '  of 
thee  '  <  Old  Ind.  Husya). 

sy  >  s[s). 
§  891.     The   assimilation  of  sy  to   s{s)  is  found  both   in   the 
Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

Q 


226  JNDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  syala  '  brother-in-law,' Pali  scda,  Bang,  sal, 
Hindi  sal,  Panj,  sala,  Sindlii  said,  Guj.  salo,  said,  Mar.  sdla, 
Gyp.  said. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  S]/ava  'black,'  Plil.  siyak,  siydh.  New  Pers. 
siyah,  Waxi  su,  Sangl.  soi,  Oss.  sau. 

sy  >  s{s). 
§  892.     The  assimilation  of  sy  to  s{s)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  419). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  sydva  '  black,'  Wax!  su,  Sangl.  soi,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

sr  >  [Jcjkh. 
§  893.     The  change  of  sr  to  {Jc)k]k  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  404  ?). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  sraoni  '  thigh,'  Phi.  saruk,  sarin,  New  Pers. 
siinin,  surm,  W«xl  hmj,  Siyn.  sdun,  Sarq.  xdtm,  Bal,  sarcn. 

sr  >  Is. 
§  894.     The  metathesis  of  sr  to  Is  is  rare  (cf.  §  354). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  asm  'tear,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  ars,  Ka§.  asl, 
Maz.  asr,  Afy.  osd,  Bal.  als,  Kurd.  {h)istir,  asr. 

sr  >  s{s). 
§  895.     The  assimilation  of  sr  to  s{s)  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  saliasra  'thousand,'  Prak.,  Pali  sahassa, 
Kasm.  sds,  Bihari  saliasar,  Sindlil  saliasu.  Skt.  srOtas  '  river,' 
Prak.  sotta,  Pali  sota,  Simh.  so,  soya,  {h)oya. 

b.  Iranian.  Skt.  svasru  'mother-in-law,'  New  Pers.  xusil, 
xusru,  Kal.  xasru,  Aiy.  x'^'dsa,  Bal.  vasso,  vassJ,  vasse,  Kurd. 
xosi,  xassu,  xasru. 

sr  >  sl. 
§  896.     The  change  of  sr  to  sl  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  854). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  asru  'tear,'  Kas.  asl,  etc.  (see  §  894). 

sr  >  s{s). 
§  897.     The  assimilation  of  sr  to  s{s)  is  rare  (cf.  §  419). 


CONSONANT- GnOU  PS  227 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  asm  'tear,'  Afy.  Dsa,  etc.  (see  §  894).  Skt. 
svasnt  'niotlier-in-law,'  New  Pers.  xus{r)ii,  Afy.  x^sa,  etc.  (see 

§  895). 

sr  >  h{h). 

§  898.     The  assimilation  of  sr  to  h{h)  is  rare  (cf.  §  421). 

a.  Indian.     Skt.  srotas  '  river/  Siriih.  hoija,  oya,  so,  soya,  etc. 

(see  §  895). 

ApJiaeresis  of  sr. 

§  899.     The  loss  of  initial  sr  occurs  very  seldom. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  srotas  'river,'  Simh.  oya,  hoy  a,  so,  soya,  etc. 
(see  §  895). 

sv  >  Iranian  x^,  hv  >  Jc{h). 

§  900.     The  assimilation  of  sv  to  h{Jc),  through  Iranian  x^,  hv,  is 
very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  x>'afsata  '  sleep  ! '  Phi.  x^aftayio.  New  Pers. 
xuspulan,^Slv.  fatan,  Tal.  asp,  Wax!  xofsam,  Siyn,  sorsani,  Sarq. 
xufsam,  Zaza  Jcnana.  • 

sv  >  Iranian  x^',  hv  >  {Jc)7ch,  x. 
§  901.    Tlie  assimilation  of  sv  to  %lih,  x,  through  Iranian  rr",  hv, 

is  tile  regular  one  to  wliich  this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the 

Iranian  dialects  (cf.  §  404  ?). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hvard  '  sun,'  Phi.  xur,  x^ar,  New  Pers.  xur, 
Siyn.  xer,  Sarq.  xar,  Yidg.  xtlr,  Afy.  7^mar,  nvar.  Dig.  Oss.  xor, 
Tag.  xur.  Av.  x^araiti  '  eats,'  Phi.  x^artano.  New  Pers.  xurdan. 
Gab.  xartin,  Siv.  for  dan,  Zaf.  hiixort,  Kas.  xdrdamun.  Von. 
xurtan,  Kuhr.  xCirdan,  Nay.  uxur  '  eat ! '  Tal.  hahardcn,  Siyn. 
xaram,  Sarq.  xoram,  Sangl.  x^aram,  Minj.  rz;ar,  Yidg.  xurah, 
Afy.  icoraZ,  Bal.  vara^r,  N.  Bal.  varay,  Kurd,  xurin.  Dig.  Oss. 
xvarun.  Tag.  xarin.  Av.  sax^dro  'word/  Phi.,  New  Pers. 
snxun,  Siv.  tuxun,  Kas.  suxan. 

sv  >  Iranian  x^,  hv  >  wm,  wt'. 
§  902.     The  change  of  sv  to  *mw,  »iy,  through  Iranian  .^'^j  /w,  is 
very  rare  (cf.  §§  904,  329  ?). 

Q  2, 


228  IN  DO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

b,  Iranian.  Av.  livard  '  sun,'  Afy.  nmar,  nvar,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

sv  >  Iranian  x^,  hv  >  {p)ph,  f. 

§  903.    The  change  of  sv  to  (iJ)i>^,  /  through  Iranian  .r",  liv,  is 
exceedingly  rare  (cf.  §§  904,  371  ?). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  x"araiti  'eats,'  Siv.  fordan,  etc.  (see  §  901). 
Av.  x^afsata  '  sleep ! '  Siv.  fatan,  etc.  (see  §  900). 

sv  >  Iranian  x'\  Jiv  >  v{v). 

§  904.     The  assimilation  of  sv  to  v{v),  through  Iranian  x^,  hv,  is 
extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  x^'as,  xus  '  good,'  Paz.  x'as,  New  Pers.  xus, 
xos,  Ka§.  jiis,  xus,  Siyn.  xdis,  Sarq.  xex,  Bal.  vas,  Kurd,  xos, 
Zaza  vas.  Av.  x^araiti  '  eats,'  Bal.  varag,  N.  Bal.  varay,  etc, 
(see  §  901). 

sv  >  s{s). 

§  905.     The  assimilation  of  sv  to  s(s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  svamin  '  lord, '  Prak.  sdmi,  Pali  sdmi,  suvdml, 
Ur.,  Bang,  salm,  Hindi,  Panj.  sdtm,  Sindhi  sdmtm,  Simh.  hami, 
himi.  Skt.  hhasvara  'brilhant,'  Pali  hhassara.  Skt.  svaJca 
'  own,'  Hindi  saga,  Panj.  saggd,  Sindhi  sdgo,  Guj.  sagimi,  Mar. 
saga.  Skt.  svdtdga  'mimicry,'  Hindi,  Panj.  sdmg,  Sindhi  sdihgu, 
Guj.,  Mar.  somg. 

sv  >  h{h),  and  sv  >  Iranian  x^',  Jiv  >  h{h). 

§  906.     The  assimilation  of  sv  to  Ji{Ji)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  421). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  svdmin  'lord,'  Simh.  hami,  himi,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  .x"araiti  'eats,'  Tal.  haharden,  etc.  (see  §  901). 
Av.  x"aeda  '  sweat,'  Phi.  x^'al,  xmle.  New  Pers.  x^ai,  Wax!  xil, 
Sarq.  xaib,  Afy.  x^ale,  Bal.  hed,  N.  Bal.  hed,  Kurd,  xu,  xoi,  xoh, 
Oss.  xad. 


CONSONAyT-GROVPS  229 

Aphaeresis  of  sv  >  Iranian  x'\  hv. 

§  907.    The  loss  of  initial  sv  through  Iranian  x'\  hv,  is  extremely 
rare. 

b.  Iranian.     Av,  x'^afsata  '  sleep ! '  Tal.  asp,  etc.  (see  §  900). 


sk  >  c{c). 

§  908.     The  assimilation  of  sh  to  c{c)  is  rare  (cf.  §§  424,  118). 

b.  Iranian.     Av.  huska  'dry,'  Old   Pers.   iiska,  Phi.,   New 

Pers.  xiisk,  Kas.   ush,  Wrtxl  vasT:,  Afy.  vuc,  Bal.   husay,  Oss. 

XKsJc,  xus. 

sh  >  s{s). 

§  909.    The  assimilation  of  sh  to  s{s)  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  427). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  huska  '  dry,'  Oss.  xus,  xusJc,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

sk  >  sk. 

§  910.     The  change  of  sk  to  sk  is  excessively  rare  (cf.  §  427). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  huska  '  dry,'  WaxI  vask,  Oss.  xusk,  xus,  etc. 
(see  §  908). 

sk  >  s(s). 

§  911.     The  assimilation  of  sk  to  s{s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  New  'Pers.  pi(sk  'cat,'  Gil,  ^J7ca,  yVaxipis,  Siyn. 
pas,  Afy.  piso,  Bal.  piusl,  pisl,  Kurd,  pisik. 

sk  >  sc. 
§  912.     The  change  of  ^7;  to  sc  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  118). 

b.  Iranian.  New  Pers.  pusk  '  sheep-droppings,'  Wax!  2)()sk 
Siyn.  pasc,  Afy.  paca. 

st  >  khf,  xt. 

§  913.     The  change  of  st  to  kht,  xt,  is  rare  (cf.  §  404  ?). 

b.  Iranian.  A  v.  angusta  'finger,'  Phi.  august.  New  Pers. 
august,  Siv.  gus.  Von,  unguss,  Maz,  angus,  Waxi  yangl,  Siyn. 
angast,  Sarq.  ingaxt,  Sangl.  ingit,  Minj.  angar,  Afy.  gufa,  Oss 
angursth. 


230  IXDOIRANIAN  PIIOXOLOGY 

st  >  Jchs,  xs. 

§  914.     The  change  of  st  to  hhs^  xs,  is  very  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  asta  *  eight,'  Plil.  {h)asf,  New  Pers.  hast, 
WaxI  had,  hat,  Siyn.  vast,  Sarq.  voxt,  Eos.  hast,  Sangl.  Mt, 
Minj.  asJca,  Yayn,  uxs,  Afy.  ata,  Oss.  asth. 

st  >  t{t). 

§  915.     Tlie  assimilation  of  st  to  ^(i^)  is  quite  common  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  asfa  'eight,'  Wax!  hat,  ha9,  Sangl.  hat,  Afy. 
ata,  etc.  (see  preceding  §).  Av.  aw^jtlto 'finger,' Sangl.  higif, 
Afy.  guta,  etc.  (see  §  913). 

st  >  {t)th. 

§  916.     The  assimilation  of  st  to  {t)th  is  extremely  rare. 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  asta  '  eight,'  Wax!  hd9,  hat,  etc.  (see  §  914). 

st  >  l{l). 

§  917.     The  assimilation  of  st  to  l{l)  is  exceedingly  rare  (cf.  §  426). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  angusta  '  finger,'  Wax!  yangl,  etc.  (see  §  913). 

st  >  s{s). 

§  918.     The  assimilation  of  st  to  s{s)  is  quite  common  in  the 
Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  angusta  '  finger,'  Siv.  gus,  Von.  ungiiss,  Maz. 
angus,  etc.  (see  §  913). 

st  >  sh. 

§  919.     The  change  of  st  to  sh  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  222  ?). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  asta  '  eight,'  Minj.  asTca,  etc.  (see  §  914). 

sty  >  st. 

§  920.     The  assimilation  of  sty  to  H  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  231 

b.  Iranian.  Av,  istya  '  brick,'  Phi,  New  Per8.  xist,  Bal. 
ist^  It 

sn  >  Mn,  xn. 

§  921.     The  change  of  m  to  hhn,  xn,  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  404  ?). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pdsna  '  heel,'  Phi.  pdsnal;  New  Pers.  pds- 
nahj  W«xl pasnnJi,  Sarq.  puxna,  Afy.  pimda,  Bal.  pimzig,  pimz, 
N.  Bal.  plil2,  phtd,  Kurd,  jjawl. 

sn  >  d{d),  nd. 

§  922.     The  change  of  sn  to  d[d),  nd,  is  extremely  rare. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pdsna  'heel,'  Afy.  punda,  N.  Bal.  phid, 
pMz,  etc.  (see  preceding  §). 


sn  >  n[n). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  pdsna  '  heel,'  Kurd.  pdn%  etc.  (see  §  921). 


<j  923.     The  assimilation  of  sn  to  n[n)  is  exceedingly  rare. 


sn  >  4.^,  mz. 

§  924.     The  assimilation  of  sn  to  z[3\  mz,  is  rare  (cf,  §  428). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  pdsna  'heel,'  Bal.  piimsig,  pims,  N.  Bal. 
phiz,  pMd,  etc.  (see  §  921). 

sm  >  m{m). 

§  925.     Tlie  assimilation  of  s)n  to  7n{m)  is  very  common. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  casman  'eye,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  casm,  Gab. 
cam,  Si  v.,  Zaf.  cas,  Ktls.,  Von.  cam,  Kuhr.,  Samn.  cas,  Maz.  cas, 
Gil.  cis,  Waxi  cozni,  Siyn.  cem,  Sarq.  cam,  Sangl.  sam,  Minj. 
cam,  Yidg.  cum,  Bal.  cam,  N.  Bal.  cham,  Kurd,  cdv,  Zaza  cim. 
Dig.  Oss.  caste,  Tag.  casth. 

sm  >  v{v). 

§  926.     The  assimilation  of  sm  to  v{v)  is  rare  (cf.  §  324). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  casman  '  eye,'  Kurd,  cdv,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 


232  INDO-IRANIAN  PIIONOLOGY 

sm  >  sm. 

§  927.     The  change  of  sm  to  sm  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  427). 

b.  Iranian,  Av.  yusmdlidm  '  of  you/  Paz.,  New  Pers.  suma, 
Bal.  §ava,  Dig.  Oss.  smax,  Tag.  sumax. 

sm  >  s{s}. 

§  928.     Tlie  assimilation  of  sm  to  s(s)  is  very  common. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  casman  '  eye,'  Siv.,  Zaf.,  Kuhr.,  Samn.  cas, 
Gil.  c/s,  etc.  (see  §  925). 

sm  >  zm. 

§  929.     The  softening  of  sm  to  zm  occurs  but  seldom  (cf.  §  429), 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  casman  '  eye,'  WaxI  cozm,  etc,  (see  §  925). 

sy  >  c{c\  c{c). 

§  930.    The  assimilation  of  sy  to  c{c),  c{c),  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  424). 
b.  Iranian,     Av,  savaite  'goes,'  Old   Pers,  asiyavam,  New 
Pers,  Sudan,  WaxI  cauam,  Siyn.  vizafcam,  Sarq,  vazavsam,  Afy, 
sval,  Bal,  swfo,  N,  BaL  suhd,  su6a,  Kurd,  clan,  Oss.  caun. 

sy  >  s{s). 

§  931.     The  assimilation  of  sy  to  s{s)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  savaite  'goes,'  Old  Pers,  asiyavam.  New 
Pers,  Sudan,  Afy,  sval,  Bal,  suta,  N,  Bal,  su^d,  suda,  etc,  (see  pre- 
ceding §).  Av.  saiti  '  peace,'  Old  Pers.  siydti,  Phi.  sdf{th).  New 
Pers.  sad,  Oss,  ancad. 

sy  >  z{z). 

932.     The  softening  of  sy  to  z{z)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  429). 
b.  Iranian.     Av,  savaite  'goes,'  Old  Pers.  asiyavam,  Siyn. 
vizafcam,  Sarq.  vazavsam,  etc.  (see  §  930). 


zg  >  zg. 
§  933.     The  change  of  zg  to  ^g  \s  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  436). 


CONSONANT-GROWS  233 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  mazga  *  marrow,'  Phi.  mazg.  New  Pers.  mayz^ 
Sarq.  muzg,  Afy.  mayza.,  Bal.  niazg,  Oss.  mays. 

zd  >  z{z). 

§  934.    The  assimilation  of  zd  to  z{z)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  nazda  'near,'  Phi.  nazdlk,  New  Pers.  naz- 
d{lh),  Sarq.  nizd,  Afy.  nizde,  nizde,  Bal.  nazlJc,  N.  Bal.  nazi{.>), 
Kurd,  nizilk,  ncz'Jc. 

zr  >  dr. 

§  935.     Tlie  change  of  zr  to  dr  is  very  common  in  the  Iranian 
dialects. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  zrayah  '  sea,'  Old  Pers.  drayah,  Phi.  draydk, 
zre,  New  Pers.  dari/d,  zardh,  zirih,  Tat  dairuh,  Bal.  zira. 

zv  >  zm. 

§  936.     The  change  of  zv  to  zm  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  374). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hizva  'tongue,'  Plil.  {Ji)uzvdn,  zuvan,  New 
Pers.  zahdn,  zuhdn,  Gab.  izvun,  Wax!  ziJc,  Siyn.  zav,  Sarq.  ziv, 
Afy.  ziha,  Bal.  zimdn,  Kurd,  azmdn,  Oss.  aivzag. 

zh  >  zh. 

§  937.     The  change  of  zb  to  zh  is  extremely  rare  (cf.  §  436). 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  hizva  'tongue,'  Afy.  ziha,  etc.  (see  pre- 
ceding §). 

zd  >  z{z). 

§  938.    The  assimilation  of  zd  to  z{z)  is  the  regular  one  to  which 
this  consonant-group  is  subject  in  the  Iranian  dialects  (cf.  §  443). 
b.  Iranian.     Av.  duzdah  '  wretched,'  Phi.,  Paz.  duzd  '  thief,' 
New  Pei-s.  duzd,  Gab.  duz,  Tal.  diz,  Bal.  duz. 

zd  >  zd. 
§  939.     The  change  of  zd  to  zd  is  quite  common  in  the  Iranian 
dialects  (cf.  §  443). 


234  INDO-IRAKIAN  PHONOLOGY 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  duzdah  'wretched,'  New  Pers.  cluzd,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §).  Av.  wwi(?a 'reward,' Phi.  muzd^  Paz.  mozd, 
New  Pers.  muzd,  muM,  Kurd.,  Oss.  mizd. 


hn  >  nh. 

§  940.     The  metathesis  of  lin  to  nh  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  277). 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  vahni  '  fire,'  Prak.  vanhi,  Sindhl  hdhi. 

hn  >  w(w). 

§  941.     The  assimilation  of  hn  to  n{n)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ciJina  'mark,'  Prak.  cinha,  cindha,  Naip. 
cimnu^  Ur.,  Bang,  cinha,  Biharl  cm,  cinaha,  Hindi  cihtia,  Panj. 
cihan,  Sindhl  cihanu,  Guj.,  Mar.  ciniha. 

hn  >  ndh. 

§  942.     The  change  of  hn  to  ndh  is  excessively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  cihna  '  mark,'  Prak.  cindha,  cinha,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

hn  >  h{h). 

§  943.     The  assimilation  of  hn  to  h{h)  is  exceedingly  rare, 
a.  Indian.     Skt.  vahtii  '  fire,'  Sindhl  hahi,  etc.  (see  §  940). 

hm  >  m{7n). 

§  944.     The  assimilation  of  hm  to  m{7n)  is  very  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hrahmana  '  Brahman,'  Prak.  hamhana,  (in- 
scriptions of  Kapur  di  Giri)  hamana,  Jaina  Prak.  mdhana,  Pali 
hrahmana,  Biharl  haman,  hamhan,  hdmahan,  Sindhi  hdmhhanu, 
Simh.  hamha. 

hm  >  mh. 

\  945.     The  change  of  hm  to  mh  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hrahmana  '  Brahman,'  Simh.  hamha,  etc. 
(see  preceding  §). 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  235 

hn  >  mhh. 

§  946.     The  change  of  hni  to  }nhh  is  rare  (cf.  §  449), 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hrdhmana  '  Brahman,'  Sindhi  hdmhhanu,  etc. 
(see  §  944). 

%  >M- 
§  947.     The  assimilation  of  hy  to  j{j)  is  very  rare  (cf.  §  331). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  gultya  'hidden,'  Prak.  gujjha,  Panj.  gujjhd, 
Sindhi  gujJio,  Guj.  guj,  Mar.  gtij. 

^>y  >  [JWi- 
§  948.     The  assimilation  of  hy  to  {j)jh  is  quite  common  in  the 
Indian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  nahyati  '  binds,'  Prak.  najjhai.  Skt.  guhya 
'hidden,'  Prak.  gtijjJia,  Panj.  gujjhd,  Sindhi  gtijhd,  etc.  (see 
preceding  §). 

hv  >  {h)hh. 

§  949.     The  assimilation  of  Jiv  to  {b)bh  is  not  infrequent  in  the 
Indian  dialects  (cf.  §  373). 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jiJivd  '  tongue,'  Prak,  jibhlid,  jlhd,  Pali  jivhd, 
Ass.  jibd,  Naip.  jihru,  Kasm.  zeo,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  jtbh, 
excepting  Sindhi  jihh,  Simh.  diva,  Maladive  du,  Gyp.  cih.  Skt. 
gahvara  '  cavern,'  Pali  gahhhara.  Skt.  vihvala  '  agitated,'  Prak. 
vchhhala,  viliala,  Hindi  bihahal,  Panj.  hiJml. 

hv  >  v{v). 

§  950.     Tlie  assimilation  of  hv  to  v{v)  is  very  rare. 

a,  Indian,  Skt,  jihvd  'tongue,'  Siriih,  diva,  etc,  (see  pre- 
ceding §), 

hv  >  h{h). 

§  951.     The  assimilation  of  hv  to  h{h)  is  extremely  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jilivd  '  tongue,'  Prak.  jihd,  jihhhd,  etc.  (see 
§  949).  Skt.  vihvala  '  agitated,'  Prak.  vihala,  vchhhala,  Hindi 
hihahal,  Panj.  hihul. 


236  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Syncope  of  hv. 
§  952.     The  loss  of  internal  hv  is  exceedingly  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  jihva  'tongue,'  Kasm.  seo,  Maladive  dfw,  etc. 
(see  §  949). 

Anusvdra  and  Anunasiha. 
§  953.  In  the  Middle  Indian  dialects  the  anusvara,  a  purely  nasal 
sound,  has  been  almost  entirely  lost,  and  has  vanished  altogether 
in  the  New  Indian  dialects.  On  the  other  hand  the  anunasika, 
or  nasalization  of  a  vowel  sound,  became  more  and  more  frequent 
during  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  periods,  until  it  now  completely 
supersedes  the  anusvara.  Anunasika  may  stand  before  h  or  5, 
and  is  interchangeable  with  the  class-nasal  in  all  vargas  in  the 
New  Indian  dialects.  Final  anusvara  becomes  anunasika  in  the 
transition  from  Middle  to  New  Indian,  and  such  an  anunasika  is 
retained  unchanged  after  long  vowels  in  Panjabi,  Sindhi,  Gujarat!, 
and  Marathl,  although  they  elide  it  after  a  short  vowel.  In  the 
other  New  Indian  dialects  final  anmiasika  is  lost  under  all  circum- 
stances. Avestan  q  possesses  a  certain  resemblance  to  Indian 
anunasika. 

a.  Indian,  Skt.  simJia  'Hon,'  Prak,,  Pali  silia,  Hindi,  Panj. 
simgJi,  Sindhi  simglio,  simhu,  other  New  Ind.  dialects  simh 
(pron.  sinigh).  Skt.,  Prak,  hamsa  '  goose,'  E.  Hindi  lidnis,  hans. 
Skt.  spoJchala  '  fetter,'  Pali  samhhala,  Ass.  sikali,  Naip.  sikri, 
Ur.  sikuli,  Bang,  sikal,  sikal,  E.  Hindi  shnkar,  slkar,  sik{k)ar, 
Hindi  Slkar,  sikhar,  sikal,  Panj.  samghar,  Sindhi  sawgliaro,  Guj. 
sanighal.  Mar.  sdmkJial,  sdkhal,  sikrl.  Skt.  kuhcikd  'key,' 
Kasm.  kimz,  Ur.  kumci,  kumjlii,  kuji,  Bang,  kilmji,  kujl,  Hindi, 
Panj.  kumji,  Sindhi  kimji,  Guj.  kiwic'i,  Mar.  kimijt.  Skt.  sancjha 
'  eunuch,'  Prak.  sandlia,  Ass.  sdmr.  Bang,  sdmr,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi 
sdmr,  Panj.  sdmdh,  Sindhi  sdnu,  Mult.  sdmJt,  sandhd,  Guj.,  Mar. 
sdnuj.  Skt.  skandJia  'shoulder,'  Prak.,  Pali  khandha,  Ass. 
kdmd{h),  Ur.,  Bang,  kdmdh,  Biharl  kdmdhd,  kJidmdd,  Hindi 
kdmdhd,  Panj.  kandhd,  kannli,  Sindhi  kandhu,  Guj.  khdmdo, 
Mar.   kkdiMd,  Simh,  kanda.     Skt.   kampati  'trembles,'  Prak. 


CONSONANT-GROUPS  237 

kampa'i,  lamjja'i,  Pali  kampati,  Ass.  kanip,  Kasm.  kmn{])), 
Hindi  kamp,  Panj.  kamh,  Sindhi  kanih,  Guj.,  Mar.  kdmp.  Skt. 
idanim  'now,'  Prak.  danim,  dani.  Skt.  dadhi  'curds/  Prak. 
dahini,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  dahl,  Panj.  daluih,  Sindhi  daJnm,  Guj., 
Mar.  dah'im. 

Visarga. 
§  954.     The  Old  Indian  visarga  is  entirely  lost  in  the  Middle 
and  New  Indian  dialects.    In  the  few  instances  in  wliich  h  appears 
in  script  in  New  Indian  it  is  employed  under  learned  influence, 
and  is  not  pronounced. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  duhkJia  '  misery,'  Hindi  duhkh  (pron.  dukJi), 
dukh.  Skt.  antahkarana  '  heart,'  Hindi  antahkaran  (pron. 
ant{a)karan).  Skt.  nihsmsa  'sigh,'  Hindi  nihsvas  (pron.  nisvas), 
nisvas. 

Metathesis. 
§  955.  Metathesis  occurs  very  frequently  in  the  Middle  and 
New  Indo-Iranian  dialects,  especially  when  one  of  the  consonants 
involved  is  a  liquid  or  a  sibilant.  Although  transposition  of  indi- 
vidual consonants  is  the  more  usual  case,  instances  of  the  meta- 
thesis of  entire  syllables  are  not  lacking. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hrada  '  sea,'  Jaina  Prak.  draha,  Ardhamag. 
Prak.  daJia.  Skt.  aldna  'elephant's  tie-post,'  Prak.  dndla. 
Skt.  lagJmka  '  light,'  Prak.  halua,  lahua,  Pali  lahuka,  Ur.,  Bang. 
halkd,  E.  Hindi  haluk,  Hindi  halakd,  Sindhi  Jialko,  Guj.  hala- 
kum,  Mar.  halakd.  Skt.  sakafa  '  stupid,'  Pali  kasata.  Skt. 
gardahha  'donkey,'  Prak.  gaddalia,  gaddaha,  Pali  gadrahha, 
Ass.  gddh,  Naip.  gaddJta,  Ur.  gadhd,  Bang,  gddhd,  Biharl,  Hindi 
gadhd,  Panj.  gadhd,  gaddo,  Sindhi  garahu,  Guj.  gadhedo,  Mar. 
gadhav.  Skt.  ksCpana  '  toss,'  Prak.  khepa,  Ur.  phhhgihd,  ])a- 
kaibd,  Hindi,  Panj.  phemknd,  Sindhi  phakanu,  Guj.  phemknd, 
Mar.  phemknem.  Skt.  vrudati  '  sinks,'  Prak.  hudda'i,  Ur.,  Bang. 
hud,  Hindi  hud,  Sindhi  hud,  Guj.,  Mar.  hud  beside  Ur.,  Bang. 
duhnd,   Panj.    clubhand,    Sindhi  duhanu,   Guj.,   Mar.    duhanu. 


238  INDO-IRANIAN  FIiO.\OLOGY 

Skt.  paridhiyate  '  is  clothed,'  Apab.  Prak.  parilia'i,  Kasm.  jmTv, 
Ur.  pahar,  Bang.,  E.  Hiudl,  Hindi  ])alm\  Guj.  per,  cf.  also  Mar. 
peran,  peJiran  '  shirt.'  Skt.  hidala  '  cat,'  Apab.  Prak.  vidlu, 
Naip.  hirdlu,  E.  Hindi,  Hindi  hilar,  Guj.  hilddi.  Skt.  stimudra 
'sea,'  Prak.  samudda,  samudra,  Pali  sanmdda,  Siihh.  ^haniuda 
>  ^mahuda  >  mulmda.  Skt.  nupura  'anklet,'  Prak.  neura, 
nhira,  Pali  nupura,  Ur.  nepura,  niipura,  Sindhi  nurd,  Guj.,  Mar. 
nepur,  Simh.  nuriiva.  Skt.  sayana  '  bed,'  Prak.  sayana,  Pilli 
sayana,  sena,  Simh.  yaliana. 

An  instance  of  vowel-metathesis  seems  to  be  found  in  Skt. 
picunianda  '  nimba-tree,'  Pali  pucimanda. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  suxra  '  red,'  Old  Pers.  Ouxra-,  Plil.  suxr, 
New  Pers.  &nrx,  Sir,  sirah,  Siv.  sir,  Yazdl  surkuh,  Kuhr.,  Kas. 
siir,  WaxI  sohr,  Siy.  sIraA,  Afy.  sur,  Bal.  5w/ir,  Kurd.  5or,  Dig. 
Oss.  surx,  Tag.  sir^.  Av.  vafra  '  snow,'  New  Pers.  harf,  Gab., 
Kas.,  Maz.,  Gil.,  Sarq.  varf,  Minj.  varfaJi,  Yidg.  varfiih,  Yayn. 
vot/ir,  Afy.  vdvra,  Kurd.  hajr.  Av.  tarsna  '  thirst,'  Phi.  ^i^/*. 
New  Pers.  ti§,  Waxi  to:r(i),  Siyn.  tasna,  Sarq.  ^Mr(*),  Yidg. 
trusna,  ASy.  tazai,  Bal.  tunnag,  tunag,  N.  Bal.  ^^M«f,  Kurd.  ^«, 
tarn.  Old  Pers.  Mxtri  nom.  prop.,  Plil.  &a.ir,  &a.i7.  New  Pers. 
halx.  Av.  asrw  '  tear,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  ars,  Kas.  asl,  Maz.  a^r, 
Afy.  osa,  Bal.  aZs,  Kurd,  asr,  {h)istir.  Av.  larana  'boundary,' 
Phi.  Jcandr,  New  Pers.  lardn,  Jcandr,  Oss.  kliaron.  Av.  masga 
'  marrow,'  Phi.  wia-s^^,  New  Pers.  *j?ay^,  Sarq.  ??;Mf r/,  Afy.  mdym, 
Bal.  ?«ai^,  Oss.  ?j?ay^.  Av.  vttasti  '  span,'  Phi.  vitast,  New  Pers. 
hidast,  gidast,  Afy.  vZw^,  «;Z^s^,  Zm^.  Skt.  Zi/.-5a  '  nit,'  New  Pers. 
rihk,  Afy.  rica.  Dig.  Oss.  ?«sZ;a,  Tag.  lisle.  Av.  /sm  '  cattle,'  Afy. 
spa,  spun.  Av.  srva  '  horn,'  Phi.  srilh,  sruv,  New  Pers.  saru{)i), 
suru,  Bal.  srmihe,  surmn,  Kurd,  savr  '  stag.'  Av.  pudra  '  son,' 
Old  Pers.  puO'a,  Phi.  pus{ar),  puhr,  New  Pers.  ^;2is(ar),  pilr, 
•  Gab.  2?Mr,  Ka§.  p^ur,  pur,  Samn.  pir,  W«xl  p)oif,  Siyn,  ^?2ic,  Sarq. 
7)oc,  Minj.  jj?7r,  Yayn.  pulali,  N.  Bal.  pliusay.  Dig.  Oss.  fiirih. 
Tag.  /r^A,     Av.  aw^ra  '  cloud,'  Oss,  arw;. 


CONSONANT-GROUrS  239 

Assimilation  of  syllables. 

§  956.     The  assimilation  of  syllables  is  found  occasionally  both 
in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  ndirahjana  nom.  prop.,  Pali  ncranjara. 
Skt.  navamivati  'ninety-nine,'  Kasm.  nanuinianiafh,  Bang,  nivd- 
nawa%  Bihari,  Hindi  nindnave,  niyditavc,  Panj.  nadlndvc,  Sindhi 
nadhdnave,  vadhdnave,  navdnave. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  navadasa  '■  nineteen,'  Phi.  navdcdaJmm,  New 
Pers.  nuvdzdali,  Afy.  niinas,  m'das,  Dig.  Oss.  naudas,  Tag.  nudas. 
Skt.  naJclia  'finger-nail,'  Plil.,  New  Pers.  ndxun,  Afy.  nilJc,  Bal. 
ndhm,  ndJiun,  N.  Bal.  ndxtcn,  Kurd,  nainuh.  Phi.  dtmnak 
(read  ddvinah  ?)  '  mirror,'  New  Pers.  dyinaJi,  Bal.  ddm{h),  Dig. 
Oss.  aidana. 


Dissimilation  of  syllables. 

§  957.    Dissimilation  of  syllables  is  found  occasionally,  although 
the  phenomenon  is  comparatively  rare. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  JcaJcJcOla  '  bdellium,'  Pali  taJcJcola,  Simli.  tahd. 
Skt.  jaliikiJcd  'leech,'  Pali  jaliqnJca,  jaluJca.  Skt.  dadrUgJma 
'  remedy  for  leprosy,'  Pali  gadduhana.  Skt.  pipUiJca  '  ant,'  Pah 
Jcipillika,  piptliJca. 

Loss  of  syllables. 

§  958.     The  loss  of  entire  syllables  is  found  quite  frequently 
both  in  the  Indian  and  in  the  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  astamayana  '  sunset,'  Prak.  atthamana.  Skt. 
avata  '  ditch,'  Prak.  ada,  Siriih.  vaja.  Skt.  durgddcvl  '  wife  of 
6iva,'  Prak.  diiggdvl.  Skt.  devaJcida  '  temple,'  Prak.  deula, 
devaula,  devakida,  Ur.  deula,  Bang.,  Hindi  deval,  Panj.  devdld, 
Sindhi  devilt,  Guj.  deval,  Mar.  deul.  Skt,  dvddasa  'twelve,' 
Prak.  vdraha,  Pali  dvddasa,  bdrasa,  Kasm.  bdh,  Ur.  bdra,  Bang. 
vdro,  Biharl,  Hindi  bdrah,  W.  Hindi  bard,  Panj.  bdrdm,  Sindhi 
hdraJiam,  Guj.  bar,  Mar.  bdrd.  Skt.  sithila  '  slack,'  Prak. 
sidhila,  sadhila,  Mag.  Prak.  dhilla,  Pali  sithila,  satjiila,  Ass. 


240  INDO-IBANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

dhil,  Naip.  dhllo,  Ur.  dhUct,  Bang,  dhil,  Biharl  dJilla,  E.  Hindi 
dhal,  Hindi  dJiJla,  Panj.  dhilla,  Sindhi  dhild,  dhiro,  dharo,  Guj. 
dhllum,  Mar.  dliild,  dhil,  sadhal.  Skt.  vimsati  'twenty,'  Prak. 
vlsai,  Pali  vlsati,  visa,  Kasm.  vuli,  Bang,  vis,  Biharl,  Hindi  his, 
Panj.,  Sindlil  vih,  Guj.,  Mar.  vis.  Skt,  anuru])a  '  parable,'  Prak. 
auuruva,  Pali  anuriipa,  Siriih.  nuru. 

b.  Iranian.  Av.  iiaitiddna  *  mouth-veil,'  Pahl,  padam,  New 
Fers,.  panom,  panani.  Av,  Orisata  'thirty,'  Phi,  sih,  Paz.,  New 
Pers,  si,  Afy.  ders.  Av,  antard  '  witliin,'  Old  Pers.  <2iar.  Phi. 
andar,  New  Pers,  cZar,  andar.  Old  Pers.  ^duvitlyam  haram 
'for  the  second  time,'  Phi,  datlgar,  Paz.  dadlgar,  New  Pers, 
cZi^ar,  dadlgar,  N,  Bal.  ^/w(/i),  Kurd.  cZ^^ar,  tZi^ra,  Av.  7«>m 
'  tongue,'  Old  Pers,  {h)imva,  Phi,  {h)usviin,  zuvcm,  zavdn.  New 
Pers.  mhan,  zuhan,  Gab,  i^ww,  Wax!  ^iZ;,  Siyn,  ^at;,  Sarq,  ^it;, 
Afy.  ziba,  Km-d,  azman,  Tag.  Oss.  awsag.  Av.  angusta  '  finger,' 
Phi.  august.  New  Pers.  angnst,  Siv.  ^i(5,  Von.  unguss,  Maz. 
angus.  Wax!  yangl,  Siyn.  angast,  Sarq.  ingaxt,  Sangl.  i>i^i#, 
Minj,  angar,  Afy.  guta,  Oss.  angursth. 


Contraction. 


§  959.  Contraction  of  vowels  frequently  results  from  the 
syncope  of  an  intervocalic  consonant  in  the  Middle  and  New  ludo- 
Iranian  dialects.  In  the  latter  group  there  was  no  objection  to 
hiatus,  although  y  or,  more  rarely,  v  was  occasionally  inserted  to 
prevent  the  contact  of  two  vowels  (see  §§  122,  123,  137,  138,  143, 
144,  164,  183,  184,  229,  232,  242,  256,  260,  270,  272,  292,  307, 
and  consult  §§  341-348,  379-394),  Hiatus  in  the  New  Indian 
dialects  is  not  as  frequent  as  in  Middle  Indian.  The  Middle  and 
New  Iranian  dialects  afford  comparatively  few  examples  of  vowel- 
contraction. 

The  principal  contractions  in  the  New  Indian  dialects  are  as 
follows : 

ai-d>a;  a  +  i>di\  a  +  u>du;  t  +  t>l;  i  +  a>e;  u  +  u>u; 


CONSONANT- GROUPS  241 

u  +  a>d,  but  a  +  i,  d  +  u,  u  +  a,  u  + 1,  and  e  or  0  +  long  vowel  ordi- 
narily remain  in  hiatus. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  mrwaMm 'leather-worker, ' Pali  camma^ara, 
Ur.  camara,  Bang,  camar,  Hindi,  Panj.  camar,  Sindhi  camaru, 
Guj.  camar,  Mar.  cdnihar.  Ski.  Wiagini  '  sinter,' Frsk.  hahint, 
bha'im,  Pfvli  hhaghu,  Ur.  hhaiim,  hhaiini,  Bang,  ha'in,  Hindi 
hahin,  Panj.  &Miw,  haimh,  Sindhi  hJienu,  Guj.  &(J/ir"w,  Mar. 
hahin,  hJidin.  Skt.  caturtha  'fourth,'  Prak.  cailttha,  caiUtha, 
cottha,  Ur.  cdudha,  Bang,  catda,  Hindi,  Panj.  cdidha,  Sindhi, 
Guj.  cotJw,  Mar.  caumtha.  Skt.  vyajana  'fan,'  Prak.  v«Vqm, 
Hindi  6ewa.  Skt.  rajahda  '  palace,'  Prak.  raw7a,  rdaida,  laiila, 
Pali  rdjaJcula,  Bihari  raiir,  Hindi  rdul  Skt.  ndpita  '  barber,' 
Prak.  nJidvia,  ndvia,  ^ak.  Prak.  'nabida,  Bihari,  Mar.  waw,  other 
New  Indian  dialects  ndl.  Skt.  nikaia  'near,'  Mag.  Prak.  niada, 
Pali  nihata,  Bihari  niyar,  ner.  Skt.  (^v^'^Mwa 'twofold,' Prak. 
duuna,  Pali  diguna,  Hindi,  Panj.  dund,  Sindlii  dund,  Mar.  dtin. 
Skt.  sngandlia  '  fragrant,'  Prak.  suamdha,  Pali  sugandlia,  Hindi, 
Panj.  sdimuVid.  Skt.,  Pali  rodana  '  lament,'  Bang,  rci/fe,  Hindi 
rowa,  Panj,  ro«a,  Sindhi  ruanu,  Guj.  rdvum.  Skt.  koJcila 
'cuckoo,'  Prak.,  Pali  A'o^'Za,  Ur.  Mijila,  Hindi,  Panj.,  Sindhi 
Mil,  Guj.  Myal,  Mar.  /;oA^7?,  Angio-Ind.  Mil.  Skt.  godhi'ma 
*  wheat,'  Apab.  Prak.  goJimiu,  Pali  godhuma.  Ass.  ghcmJm,  Naip. 
gahum,  Ur.  gaJiama,  guma,  Bang,  ^ow,  ^a;i?,  Bihari  gohum, 
Hindi  go{m)Jnm,  gemJium,  gheum,  Panj.  gJieum,  Sindhi  gelium, 
Guj.  gJiaum,  Gyp.  (/iv. 

b.  Iranian.  Phi.  dahim  'gift,'  New  Pers.,  Gab.  (fesw.  Old  Pers. 
«ai6a  '  beautiful,'  Phi.  wev,  nevaJc{ih),  New  Pers.  weA-.  Av.  /?aca 
'  from'  +  ahairi  'beneath,'  Phi.  a^er,  Paz.  azer,  New  Pers.  ^er,  Siv. 
SI,  Zaf.  ier,  other  Central  dialects  j^r,  Samn.jer,Tal,  jiar,  Judaeo- 
Pers,  zer,  Kurd,  zlv.  Tag,  Oss,  tZaZa.  Av,  vihu,  vihava  '  widow,' 
Phi,  vevah.  New  Pers,  fteva^,  Kas,  vigd,  vie,  Kurd.  67,  Tag.  Oss. 
iday.  Av.  raoyna  '  oil,'  Plil.  rdyan,  roJcan,  New  Pers.  royan,  Kas, 
rwyaw,  ro,  Waxi  ruyiin,  ruyn,  Sarq,  ravan,  Sangl.  roy,  Minj.  royaw, 
Kurd.  ron.  Av.  ^ddtahara  'judge'  (cf.  the  Aramaean  loan-word 
**J-?P1>  Dan,  iii,  2),  Phi.  ddfvar,  ddthar,  ddvar,  New  Pers.  ddvar. 


242  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Epenthesis  of  vowels. 

§  960.  The  insertion  of  vowels  in  a  consonant-group  to  obviate 
a  succession  of  consonants  is  extremely  frequent  both,  in  the  Indian 
and  in  the  Iranian  dialects.  The  phenomenon  occurs  somewhat 
more  often  in  the  latter  system  of  dialects  on  account  of  their  ten- 
dency toward  assimilation  rather  than  retention  of  consonant- 
groups  (see  §  460).  In  the  Middle  and  New  Indian  dialects  the 
vowel  most  commonly  inserted  to  break  up  a  consonant-group  is  a. 
Epenthetic  i,  which  is  comparatively  rare,  is  found  chiefly  in 
Panjabi  and  Sindhl,  while  epenthetic  u  seems  to  be  hardly  foimd 
except  in  the  eastern  dialects  (cf.  §§3,  4).  The  three  vowels  o,  i, 
and  u  are  all  used  in  the  Middle  and  New  Iranian  dialects.  Of 
these  a  is  generally  preferred,  but  if  the  consonant-group  contains 
a  sibilant,  i  is  regularly  inserted,  while  u  is  employed  when  the 
group  includes  a  labial  sound.  The  usage  is,  however,  very 
capricious,  and  it  seems  scarcely  possible  to  lay  down  exact  rules. 

The  epenthesis  of  long  vowels  occurs  with  extreme  rarity  in  the 
Middle  and  New  Iranian  dialects. 

a.  Indian.  Skt.  hhadga  'sword,'  Prak.,  Pali  Jchagga,  Ur. 
Ichamdd,  Bang.  Jcharag,  Hindi  kharag,  Mag,  Jchdmd,  sagg,  Sindhi 
hhano,  Guj.  kharum,  Mar.  khamd,  kliadga.  Skt.  dadru  *  ring- 
worm,' Pali  daddu,  Hindi  dad,  Sindhl  dadh{r)u,  Guj.  dddar,  Mar. 
dadad,  dad.  Skt.  siJrga  '  sun,'  Prak,  sujja,  stiria,  Pali  suriya, 
Hindi,  Panj.  suraj,  Sindhl  suHju,  surjti,  Guj.  suraj,  sur,  Simh, 
(h)iru.  Skt.  sndna  'bath,'  Apab.  Prak.  nhdmi.  Pais.  Prak. 
sanana,  Pali  nahdna,  sindna,  Bihari  nahdn,  Hindi  nhdnd,  Panj. 
nhdund,  Guj.,  Mar.  nahdn.  Skt.  slcsma  '  slime,'  Prak.  simhha, 
Pali  silrsuma,  semha,  Simh.  sem{a).  Skt.  agni  'fire,'  Prak 
aggi,  Pali  {ag)gini,  aggi,  Ur.  nia,  Bang,  dgun,  Hindi  dg,  Panj. 
agg,  Sindhl  agi,  Guj.,  Mar.  dg,  SimK  gini,  Gyp.  yag.  Skt. 
sldghd  '  praise,'  Prak.  saWid,  Pali  sildghd,  Bihari,  Hindi,  Panj., 
Sindhl  sarahnd.  Skt.  ratna  '  jewel,'  Prak.  rayana,  Saur.  Prak. 
radana,  Pali,  Gatha  ratana,  Hindi  ratan,  Sindhl  ratanu,  ratnu, 
Simh.  ruvan.     Skt.  mldyati '  withers,'  Prak.  milai,  Pali  mildyati. 


CONSONANT-OROVPS  243 

Hindi  milnct,  Sindhi  milanu.  Skt.  Mesa  'trouble,'  Hindi  JcaUs, 
klcs,  Panj.  l-aJes,  Sindhi  Jcilesu,  Mar,  hiles,  JcilOs.  Skt,  strl 
*  woman,'  Prak.,  Pali  ittht,  thl,  Gatha  istrl,  Ur.  tin,  vulgar  Ur. 
tila,  colloquial  Hindi  istrl,  astri,  Panj.  tiraya,  Sindhi  tiriya, 
istrt,  EIu  itiri,  Siiiih,  istri.  Skt.  smarana  *  recollection,'  Apab. 
Prak.  sumaramt,  Biharl  sumiran,  sumaran. 

b,  Iranian,  Av,  raoyna  '  oil,'  Phi.  rokan,  royan,  Paz.  raogan, 
New  Pers.  royan,  Ka§.  ruyan,  ro.  Wax!  ruyiin,  riiyn,  Sarq. 
raww,  Sangl.  roy,  Kurd.  mw.  Av.  span  '  dog,'  Med.  o-TraKa,  PhL 
saJc,  sag,  New  Pers.  5a^,  Gab.  sala,  sava,  Kas.  as&a,  as^M,  Sanm. 
asJa,  Tal.  si^a.  My.  spai,  Kurd,  sa/j,  Av,  raoxsna  '  shining,' 
Phi,,  New  Pers,  roHn,  Siyn.  rosnaga,  Sangl.  rosnai,  My.  run, 
Bal.  rosam,  Kurd,  row,  r?m,  ruhnai,  rmid(h)i.  Av.  5pa8a  '  army,' 
Phi.  52mA,  New  Pers.  5?jpa/?,  Dig.  Oss.  afsdd,  Tag.  a/satZ,  cf,  Anglo- 
Ind,  sepoij.  GAv,  xsmdJca  'yours,'  YAv,  yuhnaka,  Paz.,  New  Pers. 
^umd,  Bal.  som,  Dig.  Oss.  smax,  Tag.  sumax.  Av.  taoxman 
'  seed,'  Old  Pers.  fawma.  Phi.  foa:w,  New  Pers.  tux)n,  Gab.  ^wm, 
Nay.  ^wm,  WaxI  taym,  §iyn.  fwym,  Sarq.  toy^n,  Yidg.  tuyum, 
My.  foma,  Bal.  ^wm,  ^o>w.  Av.  sraoni  '  loin,'  Phi.  sarm,  sarwfc, 
New  Pers.  surUn,  surtn,  Wax!  sunj,  Siyn.  laww,  Sarq.  a^aww, 
Bal.  saren.  Av.  xraosoit  'should  scream,'  Plil.  xros  'cock,' 
New  Pers.  xuros,  Gab.  urus,  Bal.  Tturus,  Tiros,  Kurd.  Z;oro6'.  Av. 
erayo  '  three,'  Paz.  se.  New  Pers.  sili,  Tat  56,  WaxI  trui,  Siyn. 
arroi,  Sarq.  Jiaroi,  Sangl.  ^rai,  Minj.  ^arai,  Yayn.  Oarai,  My. 
dre,  Kurd.  se.  Av.  Jrvaj  '  brow,'  Phi.  hru.  New  Pers.  a&rM, 
Gab.  hurd,  Wax!  vamo,  Siyn.  vruy,  Sarq.  rarao,  Sangl.  vwrij, 
Afy.  vruja,  Bal.  hurvdn,  birvdn,  Kurd.  6wrw,  &^fr^,  Dig.  Oss. 
arfuJc,  Tag.  ar/i^.  Av.  draoya  'lie,'  Old  Pers.  drauga,  Phi. 
(?ro5r,  6?roy,  New  Pers.  daroy,  duroy,  Maz.  (?arM,  (?Mrw,  Tal.  du, 
Sarq.  (Zwrw,  Afy.  daroy,  Bal.  cZaro^r,  tZro^r,  N.  BaL  droy.  Av. 
mdrddyu  '  death,'  Oss.  malath.  Av.  mat-paitifrasa  '  with  re- 
sponse,' Phi.  pdtfrds,  Paz.  pddafrdh,  New  Pers,  pdddfarah, 
pddafarah. 


B  2 


244  INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 

Final  Syllables. 

§  961.  During  the  transition  from  the  Old  Indo-Iranian  dialects 
to  the  New,  original  final  syllables  have  been  almost  completely 
lost.  Final  single  consonants  of  the  Old  Indo-Iranian  dialects 
have  thus  disappeared  for  the  most  part,  and  the  same  fate  has 
met  the  old  short  final  vowels,  while  long  final  vowels  have  either 
been  shortened  or  else  lost  altogether.  Complete  discussion  of 
these  problems,  however,  belongs  rather  to  inflection  than  to 
phonology,  but  numerous  examples  of  reduction  and  loss  in  the 
Middle  and  Now  Indo-Iranian  dialects  of  final  syllables  existing 
in  the  Old  Indo-Iranian  languages  may  be  gathered  from  almost 
every  page  of  this  work. 


Sandhi. 

§  962.  The  elaborate  system  of  sandhi  found  in  Sanskrit,  and 
the  less  artificial  conditions  observable  both  in  Avestan  and  Old 
Persian,  ceased  to  exist  in  the  Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian 
dialects,  although  certain  traces  are  still  found  in  Middle  Indian 
(Pischel,  Gramm.  d.  Pra/c.-Spr.,  §§  156-175,  353,  Childers,  JBAS., 
N.S.  xi.  (1879),  99-121,  MuUer,  Pali-arannn.,  59-64,  Frankfurter, 
Handh.  of  Pali,  21-25)  and  possibly  in  the  Pamir  dialects  of  the 
New  Iranian  (Geiger,  Grimdr.  der  iran.  Philol.,  i.  b,  307-308).  In 
the  New  Indian  dialects,  however,  as  in  the  Middle  and  New 
Iranian  dialects  (excepting  the  Pamir  group)  sandhi  is  concerned 
entirely  with  word-composition.  It  does  not,  therefore,  strictly 
form  part  of  a  discussion  of  the  comparative  phonology  of  the 
Middle  and  New  Indo-Iranian  dialects. 


I.     SUBJECT-INDEX 


(Numbers  refer  to  §§.) 


AnaptjTsis  of  a  23,  u  55. 

Anunasika  953. 

Anusvara  953. 

Aphaeresis  of  a  11,  a  21,  i  31, 
U5l,e93,k  127,  5  422,  h  455, 
ks  491,  sr  899,  sy  907. 

Apocope  of  a  13,  a  22,  i  33,  I  42, 
M  53,  e  94,  A-  129,  ?/  338,  s  402, 
s  431,  h  457,  ^w  500. 

Assimilation  of  syllables  956. 

Consonants,  single  113-459. 

Consonants,  single  :  k  114-130, 
kh,  X  131-139,  g  140-147,  gh,  y 
148-153,  79  154,  C  155-171,  ch 
172-177,  j  178-187,  jh  188-190, 
h  154,  t  191-198,  th  199-207, 
d  208-213,  dh  214-217,  n  218- 
219,  t  220-236,  th,  6  237-245, 
d  246-263,  dh,  8  264-274,  n  275- 
286,  p  287-294,  J)h,  f  295-302, 
I  303-310,  Ih,  iv  311-318,  m 
319-329,  y  330-348,  r  349-357, 
I  358-363,  V  364-394,  s  395-402, 
S  403-409,  5  410-422,  S  423-431, 
^  432-438,  i  439-443,  h  444- 
459. 

Consonant-groups  460-952. 

Consonant-groups,  single,  begin- 
ning with  k  461-494,  g  495-503, 
gh,  y  504-505,  tj  506-511,  c  512- 
514,  j  515-527,  w  528-537,  rf  538- 
540,  71  541-558,  t  559-597*  th,  9 
598-599,  d  600-618,  dh,  8  619- 


631,  n  632-664,  p  665-689,  ph,f 
690,  b  691-696,  bh,  tv  697-700, 
m  701-712,  r  713-796,  I  797-806, 
V  807-809,  s  810-821,  5  822-853, 
S  854-907,  s  908-932,  0  933-937, 
i  938-939,  h  940-952. 

Contraction  959. 

Dissimilation  of  syllables  957. 

Epenthesis  of  vowels  960,  k  130, 
t  236,  d  263,  n  286,  /  302,  h  310, 
m  329,  m  329,  r  357,  v  378,  h 
459. 

Final  syllables  961. 

Loss  of  syllables  958. 

Metathesis  955. 

Prothesis  of  a  14,  i  34,  u  54, 
kh  139,  n  285,  y  340,  v  377,  h 
458. 

Sandhi  962. 

Syncope  of  a  12,  i  32,  u  52,  k  128, 
g  147,  gh  153,  C  171,  j  187,  t  235, 
d  262,  dh  274,  n  284,  p  294,  ph 
301,  h  309,  m  328,  y  339,  r  356, 
Z  363,  V  376,  S  402,  s  422,  S  438, 
/i  456,  ^M  500,  tr  580,  fv  590, 
sc  813,  /iw  952. 

Visarga  954. 

Vowels  1-112. 

Vowels,  single  :  a  2-14,  a  15-23, 
i  24-34,  «  35-42,  M  43-55,  u  56- 
65,  r  66-82,  f  83,  Z  84,  e  85- 
94,  ai  95-98,  0  99-107,  au  108- 
112. 


II.     REVERSE-INDEX 

(Numbers  refer  to  §§.) 


a  =  a  2,  <  a  IG,  i  25,  i  36,  u  44, 

it  57,  r  68,  e  86,  o  101. 
ar  <  r  67. 
ai  <  r  80. 
a  <  a  5,  —  a  15,  <  i  26,  I  39, 

M  46,  ti  60,  y  76,  e  88,  aya  341, 

a«/a  346,  ava  379,  avi  388,  «ei'a 

393. 
i  <  a  3,  a  17,  =  i  2i,  <  I  37, 

w  45,  u  58,  r  71,  e  87,  o  102, 

^  221,  <?  247,  lya  345,  A  451. 
ir  <  r  70. 
f  <  a  6,  a  17,  i  28,  =  t  35,  <  u  47, 

M  61,  r  77,  e  89,  di  97,  o  104,  iya 

345,  wa  391,  eva  392. 
w  <  a  4,  a  18,  i  27,  *  38,  =  m  43, 

<  u  59,  r74,  0  103,  aw  110,  w  365, 
ava  380. 

i*r  <  r  73. 

u  <  a  7,  a  18,  i  29,  m  48,  =  m  56, 

<  0  105,  aw  111,  ?;  365,  ava  380, 
Mwa  394. 

_r  =  r  66. 

e  <  a  8,  a  19,  i  30, 1  40,  w  49,  m  62, 

r  78,  e  85,  ai  98,  y  106,  rt?/a  342, 

ayo  344,  a?/a  347,  ava  381,  avi 

.384,  amy  387. 
ai  <  e  91,  ai  96,  ay  a  348,  am?/ 

387. 
ai  =  ai  95,  <  ayo  344,  a?;i  385. 
0  <  a  9,  a  20,  t  41,  u  50,  u  63, 

r  79,  e  90,  o  99,  ait  112,  ayii  343, 

ava  382,  am  386,  iva  389,  ivc 

390,  uva  394. 


a^<  <  a  10,  0  100,  du  109,  am  383. 

at*  =  au  108. 

^  =  A;  114,  <  Jch  132, 5f  141,  gh  149, 

i?  288,  V  366,  h  445. 
Z:(A;)  <  kt  461,  A7/  474,  Z^r  475,  kv 

479,  A'5  480,  TdJch  508,  r^  713,  ZA; 

797,  sh  822,  5^'  854,  sv  900. 
Z:i  <  /;*117. 
Jch  <  Jcllo,  =  Ml  131,  <  gh  150, 

5  404. 
(/.-)/.7i  <  I'S  481,  »9A7i  508,  rk  714, 

r^w  784,  .9Z;  823,  sy  850,  sA;  855, 

st  860,  5^/t  866,  5?>Zi  882,  sr  893, 

sv  901. 
X  <  kU5,d  248,  6/i  312,  h  446. 
ic(^)  <  5V  901. 
xt  <  sk  913. 
xn  <  sn  921. 
ics  <  ks  482,  s/t  914. 
^f  <  Z:  116,  =  g  140,  <  gh  151,  #  222, 

^  249,  V  367. 
(/(^)  <  ks  483,  ^w  498,  ^?/  502,  gr 

503,  >a.7  510,  jh  515,  dg  538,  (^ 

600,  d(jh  601,  r^f  717,"  r^/i  719, 

Ig  798. 
<5f?/<iw  516. 
gv  <  V  369. 

.9/^  <  M  133,  g  142,  =  ^r/i  148. 
'{g)gh  <  ghr  504,  dgh  602,  r^rr  718, 

r^jr/t  720. 
y  <  M  133,  g  142,  j  179,  V   368, 

i  440. 
(y)y  <  9^  498. 
ytZ  <  A;^  462. 


II.   REVERSE-INDEX 


247 


ym  <  Jem  472. 

y2;<  kf^  463. 

ng  <  tjk  506,  nc  528,  m  321. 

logh  <  vkh  509,  tdg  511. 

c  <  Jc  118,  kh  134,  =  c  155,  <  ch 

173,  j  180,  ^  223,  S  424,  /i  447. 
{c)c  <  ks  484,  c?/  513,  cv  514,  wc 

529,  ig  564,  fe  591,  %  595,  sc 

810,  5C  856,  sk  908,  %  930. 
ci  <  C  170. 

c  <  A;  118,  C  156,  s  424. 
{6)6  <  cv  514,  ^r  507,  sg  930. 
c/i  <  C  157,  =  c/i  172,  <  s  396,  S 

405,5  411. 
{c)ch  <  ks  485,  fe  592,  tsy  596,  ^% 

598,  i?s' 684,  5C811. 
j  <  C  158,  =  i  178,  <  jh  189,  ?/ 

331,  r  350,  s  412,  s  425,  ^  441. 
(i)i  <  ks  486,  jfi  517,  jij  521,  Jv 

524,  wc  530,  di/  607,  cZr  609,  bj  691, 

rj  722,  r«/  763,  Jiy  947. 
J  <  C  159,  ^  433. 
>^  <  j  181,   =  jh  188,  <  d  250, 

S412. 
(i)i^  <  ^  486,  J«/  522,  jv  525,  dhy 

619,  ^Ar  626,  dJiv  629,  rj/i  725, 

S^  890,  hy  948. 
w  <  w  276. 
{h)h  <  jh  518,  wc  532,  ny  554,  wy 

661,  5W  838. 
hj  <  he  531,  ny  553,  wi/  660. 
<  <  c/t  174,  =  t  191,  <  ,^/i  200,  (I 

209,  ^  224. 
(^)^  <  nt  541,  ^^  559,  tr  568,  W^/i  641, 
*  'rt  730,  r^/i  739,  s.^  824,  str  828, 

5f^  834,  si^861,  stii  867. 
^r  <  tr  569. 
isfe  <  C  160,  c/i  175,  =  th  199,  <  t 

225,  ^/i  238. 

(<),^/i  <  tr  570,  (Z(Z/t  603,  rth  740,  .9.^ 
825,  .9fr  829,  sth  835,  sf?/  865,  sik 
868." 

c?  <  ^  192,  th  201,  =  fZ  208,  <  t 

226,  <Z  251*,  dh  265,  Z  .359,  6'  397. 
<  dg  539,  nt  542,  W(/  546,  wc?/i 


549,  tr  571,  <?y  610,  pt  665,  r^  731, 

r(^  743,  rdh  749,  s^  826,  sir  830, 

5^/i  836,  5/^^  869. 
dh<  t  193,  .^/i  202,  th  239,  (Z/i  266, 

r351. 
[d)dh  <  ddh  604,  dr  611,  rc^  744, 
'  rdh  750,  r5  777,  5^  827,  str  831, 

5^^837. 
w  <  w  277. 
{n)n  <  ksn  492,  jh  519,  wc  533,  w«/ 

555,  nv  557,  w?/  662,  rn  726,  rw 

754,  5W  839. 
nt  <  nth  544. 
ntr  <  w^r  637. 
Wf?  <  nt  543. 
wc?r  <  ntr  638,  W(?r  648. 
w^/i  <  nth  545. 
w/i  <  sn  840,  SW  874,  ^w  940. 
t  <  k  "ll9,   G   161,  c7i   176,  .^  194, 

=  1 220,  <  th  240,  cZ  252,  c//i  267, 

5  413. 
{t)t  <  kt  464,  gdh  495,  ^wi  561,  ty 

565,  ^r  572,  tv  581,  w^  632,  w^/i 

644,  ndh  651,  i?^  666,  rk  715,  r^ 

732,  S^  862,  sth  870,  s^  915. 
tr  <  rk  716. 
^/i  <  c  162,  ^  227,  =  th  237,  <  c? 

253. 
{t)th  <  kth  469,  nt  633,  W(^/i  652, 

r^/i  741,  st  863,  S^J/  865,  sth  871, 

1^  916. 
0  <  C  162,  t  227,  S  414. 
d  <  c  163,  j  182,  c^  210,  t  228,=  (? 

246,  <  dh  268,  V  352,  s  415. 
{d)d  <  gdh  496,  jv  526,  ^y  582,  % 

608,   dr  612,  f^v  616,  dhy  620, 

dfAr  627,  <^/w  630,  nt  634,  w^/i  645, 

ndh  653,  i?^  667,  &(Z  694,  rt  733, 

r(Z  745,  sn  922. 
fZr  <  fr  573. 

dh  <  th  241,  d  254,  =  dh  264. 
((^)(?A  <  gdh  497,  rf/i.y  621,  fZ/<r  628, 

dhv  631,  pt  668,  &(^/i  695,  rd  746, 

rcZ/i  751,  rdhv  752. 
8  <  (?  254. 


248 


INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


n  <  n  218,  d  255,  =  n  275,  <  m 

320,  r  353,  I  360,  v  370. 
{n)n  <  hi  470,  ksn  492,  ^w  499, 

j»  520,  he  534,  '(/r/  540,  nd  548, 

«f//i  550,  Mv/  550,  nv  558,  w^  636, 

mlr  650,  W(Z/i  655,  >^^  663,  nv 

664,  m  727,  rn  755,  r5w  785,  5?* 

841,  sn  875,  iiij  923,  hn  941. 
WC?  <  WfZ  547,  nt  635,  w^/i  646,  ndr 

649,  >?(Z/t  654,  sn  922. 
ndli  <  nth  647,  hi  942. 
{w)>2/i  <  nrZ/^  656. 
nm  <  dm  606,  sv  902. 
My  <  51;  902. 
nh  <  sn  842,  sn  876. 
^  <  ^'l20,  t  195,  =i?  287,  <  2)h 

296,  &  304. 
jf>(i))  <  km  473,  fp  560,  tm  563,  i^y 

583,  j^u  675,  py  679,  j;r  680,  mp 

702,  >;^v  758,  ry  767,  Ip  799,  .9^^ 

844,  sp  877. 
i?^  <  ^>Ji  562. 
ps  <  fs  690. 
ph  <  p  289,  =  ph  295. 
(i>)^^A  <  .9^>  845,  sp  878,  5p/i  883, 

sv  903. ' 
/  <  j;  289,  hh  313,  m  322,  ??  371, 

h  448. 
/(/)  <  fv  584,  j>n  676,  5y  903. 
ft  <  Jet  465, 2Jt  669. 
/if/i  <  i?^  670. 
//•  <  ^r  574. 
b  <  n  278,  ^;  290,  j)/i  297,  =  b  303, 

<  bh  314,  w  323,  ly  332,  v  372. 
6(6)  <  jv  527,  ^v  585,  ^V  617,  pt  671, 

6j  693,  6r  096,  bhr  698,  w6  704, 

rb  759,  ry  768,  Zi;  805,  vy  807. 
6c?  <  bj  692. 
6^  <  ii5  685. 
bh  <  k  121,  dh  269,  ^?/i  298,  6  305, 

=  bh  311,   <  y  333,  v  373,  h 

449. 
(6)6/i  <  6%  697,  bhr  699,  r^/w  753, 

rbh    700,   yy    709,   .sm   847,  hv 

949. 


m  <  w  279,  p  291,  6  306,  6A  315, 
=  m  319,  <  V  374. 

*A^(>»)  <  /i)H  471,  gm  501,  fZm  605, 
nm  659,  ^>w  677,  ^m/  678,  mn 
701,  m6  705,  mbh  706,  Wir  710, 
mv  711,  rm  761,  Z>m  801,  sm  814, 
.9»i  848,  iim  925,  hm  944. 

jh6  <  mp  703,  *^?r  709,  Zwi  800,  hm 
945. 

^>i6/i  <  hm  946. 

mv  <  Wi  327. 

mh  <  bh  310,  mbh  707,  5m  849,  sm 
884. 

m^  <  ps  086. 

y  <  592,  k  122,  M  137,  g  143,  C  104, 
j  183,  t  229,  ^A  242,  d  256,  t?/i  270, 
i^  292,  b  307,  =  ?/  330,  <  v  375, 
5  398,  5  406,  /i  451. 

?/(^)  <  dhy  622. 

?/a/i  <  u  64. 

r  <  r  81,  ^  196,  d  211,  ^/j  215, 1 230, 
d  257,  W  280,  'y  334,'=  r  349,  < 
I  361. 

y(r)  <  Jcr  476,  ^r/i/*  505,  ^r  575,  ntr 
639,  ^j^  672,  pr  681,  m  728,  r^ 
735,  rd  747,  r«  756,  rm  762,  /t/ 
764,  ru  771,  rs  778,  rsH  786,  rh 
795. 

ra  <  r  69. 

ri  <  r  72. 

ru  <  r  75. 

**i  <  ^V  765. 

r//i  <  rt  729. 

n^  <  r^  734. 

rbh  <  rv  770. 

rs  <  rsn  787. 

rs  <  rj  723,  rs  779,  rsn  788. 

r/i  <  //i  203. 

r  <  d'2U. 

rh  <  th  203,  dh  214. 

I  <  t'l97,  th' 204,  d  212,  dh  216, 
w  219,  t  231,  ^/i  243,  c^  258,  dh 
271,  w  281,  y  335,  r  354,  =  I  358, 
<  5  426. 

l{l)  <  kl  478,  ^»-  576,  tv  586,  <?r  613, 


II.    REVERSE-INDEX 


249 


dhj  G23,  nfr  640,  rt  736,  rd  748, 
m  757,  ny  766,  r^  794,  r/i  796,  Zy 
803,  Iv  806,  cVif  917. 

Ix  <  Mr  467. 

Zc?  <  H  737. 

?5  <  sr  894. 

?/i  <  f/i  205,  dh  216. 

(Z)Z/i  <  ly  804. 

Z  <  ,^  198,  d  213,  ^/i  217,  n  219,  ^/i 
244,  (^  259,  n  282,  r  355*,  I  362. 

ID  <  ?.'^  832. 

Ih  <  dh  217. 

V  <  ll  123,  M  138,  g  144,  j  184, 
t  232,  fZ  260,  (?/i  272,  n  283,  i^  293, 
ph  299,  &  308,  &/i  317,  m  324, 
i/  336,  =  V  364,  <  5  399,  S  416, 
/i  450. 

v{v)  <  tv  587,  <?v  618,  i)^  673,  rv  772, 
v?/  808,  vr  809,  sv  904,  sm  926, 
^v  950. 

va  <  M  65,  0  107. 

i;c?  <  pt  674. 

W  <  6/<r  700. 

vs  <  ps  687. 

s  =  s  395,  <  S  407,  5  417. 

s(s)  <  rs  780,  ^r  818. 

sc  <  cell  512. 

sc/i  <  cch  512. 

s  =  .s  403,  s  418. 

5(s)  <  rs  781,  sy  851. 

S  <  lih  135,  c'  165,  c/i  177,  t  233, 
m  325,  5  400,  5  408,  =  6'  410,  < 
s  427,  z  434,  ll  452. 

s{s)  <  Is  487,  nc  535,  ty  566,  fr  577, 
fe  594,  tsij  597,  f/<^  599,  ps  688, 
rs  774,  rsy  775,  rs  782,  ^c  812, 
sm  815,  sr  819,  4  820,  sv  821, 
.s^  852,  sc  859,  s^  864,  s/>  879,  sni 
885,  s^  891,  sr  895,  sv  905,  sZ;  909, 
U  918. 

sA;  <  sA;  910. 

st  <  sth  872. 

str  <  pstr  689. 

sp  <  tv  588. 

s/  <  S/J  880. 


sh  <  sp  881,  sm  88G. 

stii  <  sm  927. 

sr  <  dr  614. 

s?  <  sr  896. 

s  <  A;  124,  c  166,  S  419,  =  s  423, 

<  ^  435,  i  435,  442,  /i  453. 
s(s)  <  /tS  488,  ^r  578,  ts  592,  ps  683, 

rs  781,  rsn  789,  sc  857,  sth  873, 

s^  892,  sr  897,  sk  911,  sm  928, 

s?/  931. 
sk  <  sc  858,  st  919. 
sc  <  s/*;  912. 
st  <  sty  920. 
sn  <  ksn  493,  rs>i  790. 
sv  <  rsv  792. 
Z<  k  126,  C  167,  j   185,  jh   190, 

S  420,  S  428,  =  ^  432,  <  i  443, 

A  454. 
z{0)  <  ks  490,  i?/  523,  dhy  624,  swi 

887,  sk  924,  ^(Z  934,  i(?  938. 
Zy  <  kts  463. 
sd  <  M  939. 
^>w  <  sm  888,  .S'v  936. 
z  <k  126,  ^  145,  C  168,  j  186,  S  429, 

z  436,  =  i  439,  <  h  454. 
■^(■^)  <  jy  523,  r;  724,  rsw  791,  sy 

932. 
f^  <  zg  933. 
zh  <  zb  937. 
iwi  <  sw  889,  S>w  929. 
h  <  k  125,  A7^  136,  g  146,  ^f/i  152, 

C  169,  ^A  206,  ^  234,  th  245,  (^  26L 

dh  273,  i?/i  300,  &/i  318,  y  337^ 

s  401,  S  409,  S  421,  S  430,  z  437, 

=  /i444. 
h{h)  <  ks  489,  wc  536,  tv  589,  (Z//?/ 

625,  rgh  721,  rsi?  776,  rs  783,  str 

833,  sw  843,  sp  846,  s^  853,  sr 

898,  sv  906,  /iW  943,  /«v"  951. 
ht  <  kt  466. 
hn  <  ksn  494. 
/mt  <  mhh  708. 
/ir  <  ktr  468,  At  477,  /r  579,  dr 

615. 
/tr  <  th  207. 


250 


INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


hi  <  pr  682,  rt  738,  rth  742,  rs 

793. 
m  <  m  326. 
mgh  <  nl-li  509. 
mj{j)<  ndhy  657,  sr  816. 
m{j)jh  <  ndhy  658,  ^r  817. 
mtk  <  nth  642. 


w?^/i  <  7ifh  643. 

»«(/  <  nj  537. 

»wr  <  WfZA  551. 

mv  <  Im  802. 

nis  <  rs  773. 

m^  <  sn  924. 

w/i  <  ndh  552,  m^fe  712. 


III.    WORD-INDEX 

(Numbers  refer  to  §§.) 


a. 

akrnavam  74. 
akrnot  74. 
aJcsapaia  193. 
agni  498,  960. 
agra,  503. 
atdkotha  204. 
ank6l{l)a  204. 
av9^a  34. 
aiQgara  3,  355. 
angulika  4. 
am/a  158. 
acyuta  513. 
ajagara  187. 
ahjana  537. 
afa^;^  192. 
a^'as^  11,  410. 
atyimnata  565. 
a^ra  458. 
rt^Aa  241. 
atJiava  245. 
ac?«/a  607,  608. 
adhas  11. 
adhijya  522. 
adhvan  631. 
onuraga  11. 
anurupa  958. 
anusdsana  417. 
antahkarana  954. 
andhakara  656. 
any  a  661,  663. 
anvesana  664. 
anvesanti  407. 


A.  Sanskrit. 

ajpi  290. 
apriya  680. 
apsard  684. 
abhimanyu  324. 
*ahhisdna  313. 
ahhyantara  697. 
abhyayana  341. 
amdtya  11,  565. 
araghatia  152. 
aranya  11,  554,  556. 
ar/ra  713. 
ar^f/ia  720. 
«r^/ia  739,  740. 
arhuda  759. 
alawkdra  11. 
aM^a  37. 
avakdsa  128. 
avajhd  380. 
ava,^a  11,  958. 
avatdra  383. 
avatrdna  11. 
avara  382. 
avalambati  381. 
avavdda  382. 
avasyaya  382. 
avasthita  380. 
aii^i  395,  400. 
as  oka  11. 
asm  816,  817,  819. 
ast^a  821. 
asvatara  879. 
a5,^i  8. 
a5,^a«<  825. 
astamanaya  958. 


as^/ii  867,  869. 
asmi  884. 

a. 

aA;ara  122. 
dkdsa  125. 
a//ate  147. 
dcdrya  163,  164. 
ajwa  516. 

djnacakra  475,  519. 
a^aj9a  232. 
dtman  561,  562,  563. 
ddesa  256. 
apato  227. 
dpida  291. 
^dbhdtdpa  16,  312. 
aw^a  139. 

dmalaka  324,  358. 
amra  709,  710. 
dyudha  336. 
drabdha  351. 
dryapidra  294. 
dlabhisyanti  407. 
dlambana  361,  705. 
dldna  955. 
atoA;a  19. 
dvarta  732. 
dvirbhutvd  340. 
dviskrta  388. 
asa  19. 
dscarya  8,  810, 

i^5M  26,  27,  29,  487. 
i^ora  229. 


252 


INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


iti  25. 

idanim  31,  328,  458, 

953. 
iva  24. 
isu  27. 
ihaldJca  456. 


Isvara  37,  821. 

u. 

ukta  377. 
ucchisia  512. 
ucyate  Zll. 
udupa  211,  213. 
wto  228. 
utkantha  461. 
utpadyante  560. 
utsada  594. 
utsava  48. 
utsulca  594. 
udaha  5J,  122. 
udumhara  51. 
ududlia  216. 
udghdiayati  601,  602. 
udghosa  602. 
udvestati  618. 
udvodha  216. 
undara  45. 
undura  45. 
unmarga  659. 
upaithayaha  346. 
upadhydya    51,    293, 

619." 
upavisati  51. 
npavisfa  376. 
upasthdna  51. 
upasthdpitvd  16. 
urvasl  809. 
ulukhala  50. 
M?A;a  50,  797. 
w.si^a  377. 
MS.^ra  828. 

wi-na838,839,  840,  841, 
'842. 


usman  847,  849. 


unavimsati  65. 
wry'a  63. 
«/•««  727,  755. 
urnavdhhi  313. 
urdhva  752,  753. 
wrmi  83. 


f  A-sa  72,  485,  487. 
Wm  74,  220. 
f  feiy"  70. 
rddhd  72. 
V.si  71,  82. 


eZ:a  86,  92,  114. 
ehasasti  409. 
chasaptati  421. 
ckddasa  9,  86,  87,  257. 
etddrsa  257.  . 
ecZfsa  458. 
ewas  281,  282. 
eranda  93. 
eva  340. 


oyas  103. 
(>5,^/ia  458,  835. 

dutsuJcya  110. 
dupamya  112. 
dupasivi  28. 
dusadhi  273. 

hamsa  890. 
JcaMola  119,  957. 
kaidlcaria  506. 
IcaccJiapa  5,  291. 
katdha  192,  196,  19< 
kathina  25. 


kanfaka  541,  542,  543. 
kanva  557. 
kathana  245. 
katJtam  328. 
kathayati  114,  342. 
Aa^Aa  240. 
kadamha  258. 
/.•ac?a^^  260,  261,  262. 
kanyd  660,  661. 
kapardikd  747. 
kapdta    8,    191,    290, 

293. 
kapdla  293. 
kapihjala  28,  293. 
kapittha  294. 
kapdta  290. 
kahandha  306,  307. 
kampati  703,  953. 
kambala  704,  705. 
kamhoja  180. 
kansa  406. 
kardti  195. 
karkata  713. 
karkaiaha  197. 
karkatiku  4,  713. 
karkara  713. 
karna  727. 
kartari  732. 
karpdsa  18,  410,  421. 
karpura  349,  758. 
karhura  44. 
karman  761. 
karsana  777. 
AaZ^a  799. 
kalpate  799. 
A-a/ya  803,  804. 
kdmsya  890. 
A;aA;«  116. 
kdhcana  535. 
kdtara  229. 
/:ar?ya  763,  765. 
kdrsdpana  783. 
/.ato  362. 
kdldijasa  346. 
/lasa  115. 


in.    WORD-INDEX.     A.  SANSKRIT 


253 


kinculdka  363. 
kinva  557,  558. 
kii/ant  345. 
kirdta  118. 
Jcisalaya  339. 
ktta  37,  192. 
liulrsa  40. 
A;wa  116. 
A;ir^i  37. 
klla  37. 

kuncika  530,  531,  953. 
kuUmiba  45. 
kutunibaka  194. 
kuthara  205. 
kutharl  200,  202,  203, 

205,  206,  207. 
kuddala  50,  127. 
kunda  118. 
kupyati  679. 
A-I<6ja  115,    691,    692, 

693. 
kiimara  327. 
kumhhaMra  706,  707, 

708. 
kurkura  715,  716. 
/«<?a  48. 

kustha  50,  836,  837. 
kusthin  50. 
^M^a  198. 

7(;wj?a  59,  115,294,  329. 
Ay  to  71,  228,  231. 
A;r^m  80. 
krpana  71. 
A;r5i  76,  118,  119. 
^75wa  840,  841,  842. 
/t/^fa  84. 
keyiira  88. 
kesari  401. 
kdifahlia  193. 
kdivarta  98. 
/^o^iZa  122,    123,    128, 

959. 
^-r}fi  357. 
kostJia  834. 
kaukseyaha  110. 


kdumndi  112. 
^r7f?<x  40. 
kndati  212. 
krodaka  115. 
Z:Zi5frt  478. 
A-Zem  960. 
ksana  487. 
kmtriya  485. 
ksamd  3,  319. 
ksaya  342. 
ksdra  355,  491. 
/c5ma  486. 
ksiyate  486. 
^'S7m  35,  37,  480,  490. 
ksndra  484,  610. 
ksiidhd  264,  268. 
ksetra  485,  572. 
ksepana  955. 

A-A. 

kJiatvd  5. 

kha'dga  538,  539,  540, 

960. 
khandaka  546,  548. 
A7?a>?e^  277. 
kJiara  131. 
A;/ia??-t  132,  .363. 
khalvdfa  806. 
^"/^«  132. 

khddati  16,  131,  256. 
kliddana  262. 
khddita  256. 

5'- 

gaccha  512. 
^aj(Z  183. 
gandaka  548. 
(/afa  228. 
gadgada  257. 
ga{m)hhlra  37,  141. 
gariida  141. 
garjana  722. 
gar  jit  a  722. 
^arte  731. 


gardabha  140,  743,  744, 

745,  746,  955. 
garbha  760. 
garhhinl  25,  42. 
.(jfar/*a  795,  796. 
.(/rtto  358. 
gahvara  949. 
/ya^Aa  245. 

gunaganayukta  218. 
guhya  947,  948. 
grdhra   71,    626,    627, 

'  628. 
.r/r/ia  p.  ix,  67,  68,  78, 

*  82  (6is),  142. 
grhagddhikd  271. 
grhastJia  72,  872. 
grhltvd  40. 

^e/ia  p.  ix,  67,  78,  142. 
gehini  456. 
gdirika  27,  98. 
godhuma  101,  106, 142, 

273,  274,  959. 
gosthika  118. 
(/().si^A*  835. 
gosvdmika  324,  326. 
gdura  112= 
gdurava  109. 
grantha  642,  643,  644. 
granthi  641,  642. 
grdma  16,  319. 
grlsma  847,  848,  849. 

(//ia.^a  148,  192. 
^fAfZJa  71. 
ghotaka  151. 


cahora  122. 
caytra  165,  169,  475. 
caA-5M  9,  10. 
mwcM  9,  160,  162. 
caturtha  235,  739,  740, 

741,  959. 
caturdasa  745. 


254 


INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


catvdri  155,  156,  581, 

587. 
catvdrhhsat  354,  355. 
candra  648,  649,  650. 
campaTia  702. 
carana  354. 
carmaMra  128,  959. 
carman  761. 
corvaijati  767,  768. 
calati  358. 
calana  5. 
canahja  474. 
cdmara  12,  328. 
cihitsd  161. 
ci/ma  941,  942. 
V'cM.^  191. 
cwma  59,  728. 
Ct"to  196,  197. 
C(>m  106,  169. 
cdurya  110. 
cyavate  513. 

charjala  141. 

A/c/iai?  172,  173,  174, 

175,  176,  287. 
chardati  743. 
chdija  22,  177,329,337, 

378. 
chidra  613. 
Vc/iwi  191. 
cJiupati  43. 


ja^ra^  143. 
jatogala  181,  511. 
jaiogJui  178. 
^'awa  8,  181. 
janman  659. 
japana  287. 
jamhuha  705. 
jamhula  360. 
jardyu  332. 
^'a^a  185. 
jalukikd  120,  957. 


jdgarati  12. 
jdmdtrka  81. 
jdlma  801. 
j«7tm  28, 182, 185,  949, 

950,  951,  952. 
^■^ra  38. 
j7va  35,  376. 
jlv^^ft  35. 
jugiipsati  182,  684. 
j'w^a  235. 
^wa^i  520. 
jhdna  516,  517. 
jfya  522. 
i.?/o^i  220. 
jydtsnd  103. 
Jvara  527. 
jvalati  525. 
jwZft  524,  526,  527. 

jhampa  188. 
jhalla  189. 
jJidulika  112.. 

te?a#i  362. 

-/c^op  210. 
ddkini  397. 

faZ:to  462. 
taksan  226. 
tete)^  228. 
tof/^a  241. 
%9as  289,  294. 
to^^a  G67,  670. 
tapyate  679. 
tamasa  3. 
^arw  53. 
te?e  94. 
taskara  854. 
tddrsa  257. 
tdmhida  03. 


^amm  224,  709,  710. 
tdmraparna  727. 
^a?a  359. 
^am^  228,  374. 
tintidl  27,  30. 
tirascina  39. 
tilaka  224. 
tistlmti  223. 
tlksna  37. 
^7r^/ia  41,  83. 
^«<cc/«i  233,  234. 
#Mw^a  220,  225. 
tuiddhdra  272. 
Husya  890. 
^wr^a  59,  764. 
^ma  66,  82. 
trpyati  227. 
^/-5wa  71,  82,  843. 
/e*228. 
^e/as  182. 
^a^Za  98. 

frayascatvdrimsat8l3. 
trayastrimsat  336. 
trayddasa  8,  13,  344. 
traydvimsati  376. 
trimandala  572. 
^r7wi  569. 
truiati  191. 
trdilokya  474. 
tvarita  581. 

damstrd  830,  831,  832, 

833. 
^«/ra  122. 
daksina  481,  489. 
(?a(Zm  610,  611,  960. 
dadrughna  249,  957. 
dadhi  953. 
Vdam  9. 
daydlu  330. 
darsana  773. 
(?a^a  246,  401. 
c?a.^a^i  246,  251. 
dahati  251. 


///.    WORD-INDEX.    A.  SANSKRIT 


255 


dddima  212. 
daman  322. 
ddlima  212. 
ddva  375. 

divasa  25,  376,  421. 
diva  375. 

(Z^r(/^a  35, 83, 720,  721. 
dnhJcha  954. 
duhula  57. 

dugdha  495,  496,  497. 
dundublia  546. 
dimduhhi  315. 
durosdrita  356. 
tZwr^a  252. 
durgddevi  958. 
durbala  12,  44,  759. 
dusJcrta  822. 
duhi'tar  52,  250,  254. 
<?Mte  251. 
durvd  22. 
drmhita  254. 
(^r^Aa  217. 
cZrsf/.  33. 
drstha  55. 
C?em  85,  365. 
devaJcula  958. 
devara  87,  375,  392. 
devdlaya  16,  339. 
deslija  395. 
tZe/ia7i  360. 
dogdhum  495. 
<Z':i?a  251. 
dohada  258,  259. 
(ZoAato  258,  259. 
dduvdrika  110. 
%i<^i  607. 
dyiltakara  3. 
dyotayati  335. 
drdksd  612. 
dvadamn  617,  958. 
dvddasanavdrsa  398. 
(imra  616,  617.' 
dw  616. 

dvigima  147,  959. 
dvitiya  37. 


dvibhdga  30. 
(?wjwa  616. 
dvesas  617. 

Vdhalk  266. 
dhattura  268. 
dhanu  4. 
dhamati  268. 
dlmrma  268. 
dhavala  264,  383. 
dJidrayati  15, 267, 342. 
dhdvaka  264. 
(?/^?:«ma  59,  61,326,328. 
rf/ir^a  80. 
(?/iV5^a  265,  266. 
dhenu  277. 
dJidirya  97. 
dhydna  619  (&is). 
dhruva  628. 
f^/waja  629,  630,  631. 

naJcula  123,  128. 
waA'to  462. 
waMa  5,  131,  956. 
nagara  141,  143,  144. 
nagna  5,  278,  498. 
wa(?«  262,  277. 
nabhas  317,  329. 
nayati  342. 
nayana  342. 
nartalii  730. 
wava  'new'  281. 
wara  '  nine '  374. 
navaka  129,  281. 
navati  364. 
navanavati  370,  956. 
navanlta  281. 
nahyati  948. 
>2a^a  143. 
ndpita  290,  959. 
ndhhi  315. 
ndman  275,  326,  327. 
ndmayati  275. 


ndrikela  122,  128. 
nihsvdsa  954. 
nikata  959. 
nikasa  125. 
wi^f/a  565,  566. 
wicZm  22,  30,  609,  612. 
niniha  281,  705. 
nirgrantlm  718. 
nirghrna  720. 
nirjhara  725. 
niskarsana  822. 
nispufra  844. 
»^^cc  155. 
wl^a  40. 
mj9a  291. 
WiZa  55,  281. 
nunam  57,  59. 
nupura  62,  955. 
wemi  328. 

ndirahjana  280,  956. 
waM  108. 

pakta  466. 

^aAm  2,  3,  5,  287,  479. 
i9a^"5a  481,  487,  489. 
pa'K)kti  507. 
pacati  165. 
panca  535,  536, 
pahcadasa  263. 
pancavimsati  4. 
pahcdsata  529,532,533, 

534. 
panjara  3. 
pathati  202,  203. 
pathana  201. 
patati  226. 
patdkd  226. 
pattana  559. 
pathya  598. 
^a^a  256. 
padika  262. 
pantha  647. 
param  356. 
parampara  702. 


256 


INDO-IRAKIAX  PHONOLOGY 


parasH  399. 

parasvant  290. 

parigha  289. 

paridhlyate  955. 

pariksa  36. 

parnt  5. 

parnsa  289. 

i^arc  356. 

paryaiglta  506,  766. 

paryana  766. 

parvata  768,  772. 

parvan  770. 

palaijati  347. 

palasa  359. 

pavana  364,  365. 

^avw  401. 

pascat  287,  810,   811. 
812,  813. 

*pasce  94. 

pddika  261. 

i?a/^a  293. 
parihhadra  289. 
parsva  775,  776. 
2?am  289,  401. 
picumanda  955. 
i?itor  235. 
pipasa  292. 
piplliha  288,  957. 
pippala  358,  361. 
pihati  309. 
^e.^//a  201,  202. 
pidana  208,  211,  213. 
i)M«//a  554,  555. 
i>M^m  568,  571,  572. 
punar  44,  291. 
pupphnsa  49. 
^wra  48. 
purandara  352. 
puravasin  372. 
purusa  43,  45,  408. 
puskara  823. 
JOM.s^^a  289,  844,  845. 
i)w.s?/a  851,  852,  853. 
pustaka  50,  863. 
pugaphala  12. 


_?)%«  332. 

pur  ana  350. 

puma  728. 

pilrva  62. 

pr{c)chati  177,  512. 

prthaktva  4. 

prth{i)vi  9,  74,  245. 

prdaku  68,  82,  329. 

i;/-5^/<a   71,  76,  77,  82 
(6is),  835. 

paura  109. 

pamrja  851,  852,  853. 

i^ra^i  224,  680. 

pratihhati  311. 

prativasin  389. 

prativesaka  87. 

in-ativesayati  390. 
prathama  4,  238,  244, 

245. 
praihama^mtra  570. 

'^prathara  3. 
pradaksina  5. 
pradipta  258. 
pradesa  252. 
prahhavdmi  379. 
jjravafd  382. 
pravartatl  375. 
pravdda  251. 
pravdsin  38. 
prasada  422. 
prastara  863. 
l^rastliapana  680. 
praliara  3. 
prapnOti  675,  677. 
i>ri?/a  345. 
prema  85. 

phmlmga  296. 
phana  295. 
j/haigu  8,  296. 
;>Art/«  361. 
pimpphusa  49. 
phena  87. 


hadisa  209. 

badura  9. 

hadhira  8,  273. 

hadhnati  303. 

handhja  308,  658. 

halivarda  363,  748. 

halvaja  304,  805. 

hahurupa  61. 

&af?/^a  304. 

&a.s/ja    308,    844,    845, 

846. 
&a/«f  53. 
hidala  955. 
&mt?w  27. 
&?7m  806. 
&7;'a  37. 
hihhatsa  591. 
hudhyaU  303,  619,  624. 
btihhnksa  480. 
hrhaspati     305,    456, 

879. 
hrahmanya  553. 
hrahmana    218,    696, 
944,  945,  946. 

hhakta  464. 

hhagim  28,   147,   314, 

959. 
hJumga  315. 
J/ia/«  192. 
hhanatl  316. 
hhadra  613. 
&Aa?/a  342. 
bharati  2. 
bhavati  318,  382. 
bliavisyanU  853. 
bhavisyasl  418. 
bhavisye  384. 
bhasvara  905. 
bhdgadheya  147. 
bhaghieya  16,  146. 
blidnda  318. 


III.    WORD-INDEX.    A.  SANSKRIT 


257 


hliammatl  46. 
hhdsa  404. 
hJidsi/a  357. 
hhlnadnn  606. 
hlnma  40. 
hhlsma  36. 
?>/i^i)?i  56,  311,  326. 
hhoga  140. 
hhojana  99. 
hhramara    325,    698, 

699. 
hhratar  699. 
hitmfrja  178. 
hhrdfrjdi/d  178. 
hJirumul'ha  57. 

7HaZ:5/;^a481,485,487. 
»?(7^«  141. 

mafha  199. 
mcitsya  595,  596,  597. 
mathana  237. 
madgu  600. 
madlm  268. 
madhura  270. 
madhya  8,  319,  619, 

620,  621,  624,  625. 
madhvdlu  629. 
manorama  4,  323. 
mantra  637,  638. 
manmatlm  324. 
manydmi  663. 
may  lira  343. 
maralMta  116. 
masuralia  60. 
mahdrdstra  829. 
mahdnjha  16, 444,  719. 
maJiisa  323,  329. 
waca  158. 
»)2ator  232,  235. 
mdtrka  81. 
mdtra  19. 
w/a?*a  459. 
mdnand  276. 
mdnusa  4,  404. 


mdrga  16. 
mdrgayatl  717. 
mdrgasira  16. 
mdrgasln^a  778. 
mitra  580. 
mitliyd  598,  599. 
nujiidms  324. 
miiMa  461. 
muktd  50,  464. 
^;«y/j/i(*  44,    131,  136, 

138. 
mugdha  497. 
mucanti  163. 
mudga  600. 
mudgara  4,  13,  600. 
mudrd  43,  612. 
mnsala  48. 
>;«?^5^i.  48. 
midmrta  732. 
mudha  214. 
mudhutva  215. 
mtilya  58,  59,  804. 
;»«s  58. 
l«^75a  403. 
i^f^a  71. 
mrgaya  336. 
mrgdfaJca  71. 
mrndla  74. 
WiWa  68,  319. 
m'rttiJcd  68,  82  (&is), 

'559. 
mr,sd{vddin)    79,    82 

'(&/s). 
7nrsfa  824. 
r)«'e^/ia  89,  150,  152. 
mdidi  109. 
mldyati  960. 
mleccha  86. 

?/a  331. 
?/a/«a  515. 
yat  praJjlirti  329. 
ya^M  3,  3*31. 
?/«(?/  246,  252. 
S 


yantragrha  331. 
yabhati  330. 
yamala  324,  361. 
?/a.sf^  335,  825. 
^/tlnct  331. 
7/(tra^  374. 
yy?t//(X  50,  142. 
yugala  140,  147. 
yugma  501. 
yusmdlMm  338. 
y^tM  338. 
yiTf/<a  237. 
yuktra  99. 
2/ti/y?/a  331,  502. 
yduvana  112,  331. 


ra^fe  464. 
randd  547,  548. 
rct^wa  960. 
m^*^Z  354. 
m^/<ct  242,  245. 
rananjaya  337. 
ram/a  359,  360. 
rasmi  815. 
rdjakula  959. 
mjaw    180,    183,    184, 

187,  349. 
rdjila  27. 
mjwi  519. 
m///a  521. 
ri^rl  19,  572,  580. 
rdyatl  348. 
rukmavatl  471. 
riikminl  473. 
nt.sfa  827. 
n'A;M  133,  349. 
nyjH  354. 
n//>/«a  298. 
re/i»ii  358. 
rcim^i  103. 
rodana  959. 
ro»?a«  310,  326. 
rohita  106. 


258 


IN  DO- IRAN  I  AN  PHONOLOGY 


I 

lagna  358,  498. 
lagyate  502. 
laghu  152. 
laghnTxa  955. 
lafDgula  510. 
lajja  329. 
labdha  695. 
lahhati  318. 
lahhyate  697. 
ZaZafa  359,  360. 
Zayawa  360,  380,  382. 
lasuna  402. 
lahan  8. 
latogaJa  360,  510. 
ZiA;5a  361,  955. 
ZiMa^^  131,  137. 
Z?2?^  290. 
limpati  358. 
limt{h)d  360. 
Ze.s^^t  826. 
ZeAmi  358. 
IdUjam  103. 
Zoik.sa  16, 17, 290, 293, 

361. 
loha  444. 
lohakdra  103. 


vangana  8. 
vacana  171,  277. 
vadisa  209. 
va^sa  5,7,591  (&i5),592, 

593,  594. 
vatsara  592. 
mfZ/w7  59,  270,  273. 
Wiwa  281,  282. 
vanaspati  877,  879. 
varJcara  3,  9. 
tYtr</«  717. 

vartaM  374,  730,  734. 
vartika  364,  732. 
vardhaki  750. 
vardhate  749,  750,  751. 
mr.9r«  781. 


valkala  797. 
vaZrya  798. 
valguli  798. 
mAwi  940,  943. 
vdnija  219. 
vdmana  328. 
w//?t  339. 
vdlukd  45, 
?;a5j;a  372,  373. 
vimsati  28,  958. 
vikaroti  123. 
vikdsate  123. 
vighatate  151. 
vijhaptika  374. 
vijhdna  518,  519. 
t7kZ?/«(^  24,  607. 
vidhgati  620. 
virala  372. 
vildsa  417. 
2;?.sa  409. 

vismaya  884,  885. 
viJtvala  949,  951. 
■yrZ;.s«  p.  ix,  69,  75. 
i'/'^a  559. 
vVf^i  225. 

vrddha  68,  74,  82, 103, 
'  372. 

vrddhatva  583. 
vrddhi  604. 
vrwto  82. 
vrscika  364,  811. 
vr.s«  70. 

vrmhha  68,  408. 
■y/'.s'fi  74. 
vcdand  87. 
t7C.9.^«  372,  373. 
Vi'sfaka  826,  827. 
vesfana  90. 
vdldya  608. 
vdisravana  374, 
vdiMyasa  346. 
vdihdra  449. 
vyamsana  807. 
vyakti  33. 
vyagra  503. 


vyajana  187,  959. 
vyatlta  807,  808. 
vyathayati  241. 
vydghra    15,    16,   504, 

807,  808. 
v/yasa  357. 
vyutsarga  594. 
vrajati  180. 
fri/i^  456. 
vrudati  955. 

sakatikd  193. 

5a^7^  396,  419. 

saM«  469. 

saknoti  470. 

5aZ;^a  461. 

iawa  396. 

5aZa  235,  395,  400. 

saphari  298,  300,  301. 

Sahara  303,  306. 

6'a&^a  694. 

sayana  955. 

sayandsana  342. 

6'a?/7/a  8. 

samcZ  262. 

sarkara  713,  714. 

SftA'rt  397. 

sdkinl  397. 

sdkhd  133. 

mwa  419. 

sddvala  616. 

sdliika  59. 

sdlmall  800,  801,  802. 

sdvaka  396. 

si^/iiZa  25,  239,  958. 

*iZa  400. 

sisira  402. 

sf5?/a  850. 

sikara  121. 

slglira  504. 

.s•^fa  841. 

5V.9a  37,395,401,402, 

780,  782,  783. 
5?eA-a  123, 


///.    WORD-INDEX.    A.  SANSKRIT 


259 


sunthi  544,  545. 
su'ddha  G03. 
susrusd  400. 
suska  822,  823. 
susyati  852. 
siiwia  662,  663. 
srtdlxli  ala  133, 508, 509, 
*  953. 
snDija  71. 
sr5«  396. 
sdiJcsa  489. 
saiZa  98. 
sobJiati  400. 
saury  a  111. 
smasdna  814,  815. 
smasni  9,  814,  819. 
syanwla  324,  361. 
sraddhd  604. 
sravana  818,  819. 
srdmaneya  334. 
s^r^/i'a  125. 
sldgJid  960. 
slesma  820,  960. 
svasura  349,  401. 
sra^m  5,818,819,821, 
^  895,  897. 
srasa  821, 

s. 

satpada  405. 
sandJia  408,  549,  550, 

551,  552,  953. 
sas  405. 
sasfi  824,  825. 
sodasa  212,  213,  403, 

*408. 


saMta  955. 

salcala  116. 

saZ:/ii  136. 

saw^re  94. 

S«/a  193. 

5a)^?/a  5,  13,  564,  566. 

sanininmdJiati  269. 


sandhi  8,  656. 
sandhyd  657,  658. 
sapddiha  291. 
saptacatvarhnmt  8. 
saptati  230. 
saptan  410,  666. 
saptasastl  665,  672. 
saphala  298. 
sahhlka  417. 
samaja  183. 
samavasrsta  382. 
saniudra  4,  48,  955. 
samrddhi  5. 
samhliavanti  379. 
samnmrsa  9. 
sarayu  333. 
sar/;a  421,  758. 
sarw  768,  769,  772. 
sarvajna  517, 518, 520. 
sarsaxm  5. 
saJiasra  415,  895. 
sddhu  273. 
sdrdha  749,  750. 
5a5Ma  18. 
5?m72a    28,    410,   712, 

953. 
siJitha  469. 
sihcati  411. 
sindtira  30. 
5/m  411. 
5^(7a^i  422. 
sivyati  807. 
sukunidra  115. 
siikrtd  66. 
sugandha  959. 
5«f7Aa  411. 
S?(j;^a  666,  667. 
surwtdga  44. 
suvarna  726,  727. 
suvrsti  372. 
5«a  171. 
5M^m  569. 
siitradhara  411. 
5wr?/a  58,  764,  765,  960. 
srgdla  34,  147. 

B  2 


srjanaJidra  125. 

sdinya  96. 

skandha  654,  656,  854, 

855,  953. 
■Stewa  276,  863. 
stamhha  860,  861. 
S^«f^  45  (&is). 
!  stdinya  862. 
j  sfydnd  865. 
56-^  14,  34,  960. 
s^Aa?a  362. 
sthavira  384,  385. 
sthdnu  866. 
stJldna  14,  280,284,  868, 

871. 
sthdpayati  19,  290. 
5^^a?7  870. 
s//i?ra  870,  871. 
sthura  54,  57. 
5Wa??a  14, 275, 874,  876, 

960. 
sndyu  334. 
snusar  875. 
s;ieA«  452,  875. 
snail  I  ilea  452. 
spandana  878. 
sparsa  877,  878. 
sparsana  5,  774. 
sphatika  125,  197. 
spliiita  883. 
sphurati  44. 
spJiotaka  882,  883. 
sphotati  198. 
smarana  960. 
smarati  885. 
5W?r^i  885. 
52/a?a  891. 
5r^<c  158. 

sro^as  895,  898,  899. 
5mZ:a  905. 
svapant  291. 
svapna  675. 
svayampati  337. 
svdydga  905. 
svamin  905,  906. 


260 


INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


k 

Immsa  412,  953. 
Imtya  564. 
haridrd  25. 


hasta   444,   455,   862, 

863. 
haridra  354. 
hintdla  445. 
hiranya  556. 


*hrdaka  251. 

hrdaya  71,  256,   330, 

'  339,  444. 
Jiyastana  862. 
/imc^a  955. 


B.  Iranian. 

(O.P.=  Old  Persian,  which  is  cited  in  the  Index  only  when  no  Avesta 
equivalent  is  found.) 


auvirocayeiti  313. 
axsaena  12,  87,  89. 
angusta  11,  510,  913, 

915,  917,  918,  958. 
antard  958. 
anya  3,  663. 
tip   20,  287,  290,  293, 

294. 
apordndyu  11,  67,  82. 
aj)qs  11. 
awra  700,  955. 
O.P.  amdnaya  17. 
arojah  723,  724. 
ardsa  67,  71,  139,  429. 
ava  371. 
avaha  382. 
O.P.  avdlmnam  328. 
avivanta  365. 
as«?/a  177,  330. 
asdnga  11. 
aspa   2,  5,   340,  458, 

879. 
asntan  11,  886,  889. 
flSTM  9,  236,  894,  896, 

897,  955. 
asdmaoya  149. 
asta  8,  377,  914,  915, 

916,  919. 
az9m  377. 
azdd  11. 
aii  dalidha  357. 
ahmalia  11,  15. 


ahmdJcom  115. 
a/imi  340. 


dgdinat  501. 
ater.s  3,  21,  222,  340. 
dfnna  279. 
dyapta  21. 


i%a  24,  28,  920. 


upairi  51,  293. 
W6'i  50. 
wlfra  44,  51. 

aea;a  89,  92,  131. 
aeOrapaiti  458. 
ac«/"a  92. 

aesma  86,  887,  8 
aesma  139. 


ao. 


ao^a/i  458. 

/t-a  116,  118. 
Jcata  117,  118,  221. 
O.P.  KaTTiOn  168. 
/jo/a  115,  295,  296. 
lanina  701. 
Jcarana  955. 
kardta  733,  734,  735. 
kardQia  754,  755. 


Vhards  8. 
Jcarsaydn  781. 
Tiarsta  74. 
Jcarsvar  792. 
A;a.s?«  410,  421. 
lahrkdsa  16,  115. 
Idvaya  387. 
Jcdrofa  118. 

hdrdnaolti  74,  82,  114. 
Jc9rdma  67,  70,  82. 
htsaiti  429. 
Z;/7  59. 

7i;ao/«    103,    114,    117, 
296,  297,  299,  300. 

.rfflra  131, 132, 134, 135, 

136. 
^xara-gaosa  144. 
xrafstra  689. 
xraosoH  960. 
xsap{an)  289,  290,  293, 

481,  482,  488. 
^xmpacara  484. 
xsafnya  678. 
O.P.  xsdyadiya  346, 

488. 
a'M>'a  488. 
xsiidra  614. 
xsmdka  115,  338,  960. 
icsra^  428. 
xsvasti  8. 


.(/• 


f^aSa  142. 


III.    WORD-INDEX.    B.  IRANIAN 


261 


gainti  636. 

garah  358. 

garsma  140,  141,  145, 
762. 

gau,  gav  140, 145, 37G. 

gdtu  15. 

gjrdpfa  71. 

O.P.  gqdumava  328. 

giWa  59,  237,  243,  245. 

gaedanqm  245. 

gaona  105. 

gaospdnta  880. 

(/aola  34,  99,  102,  103, 
107,  141,  142,  423, 
426,  427,  429,  431. 

C. 

caxra  155,  477. 
caOtvaro  4, 18,156,170, 

583,   584,   585,   586, 

587,  589,  590. 
cardman  762. 
casnian  155,  156,  157, 

925,  926,  928,  929. 
^ci-gaona  147. 
ci^m  155,165,575,579. 
clt  24. 
dry  a  764. 
O.P.  ciy  30. 
O.P.  ciscly  28,  161. 
c«;aw^  514. 


jaini  3,  6,  7, 178, 179, 
183,  185,  186,  275, 
281. 

jainti  178. 

jafm  185,  186,  682. 

O.P.  j'lvahy  37. 

jya  459,  523. 

ji'wi^i  185,  186,  391. 

jvant  635. 

tacaiti  167. 
^anw  220. 


tancista  528. 
f«/w2*  676. 
tmiruna  354. 
tor^^^  8. 
tarsna  4,  7,  71,  220, 

784,   785,    786,   789, 

790,  791,  955. 
tava  228. 
tasa  302. 
#a««^  357. 
tapayeifi  227. 
tdrdsaiti  18,  227. 
fa^m  5,  639,  640. 
O.P.  tigra  13. 
^/^ri  505. 
^i<5aw  45. 
turn  581,  582. 
taoxman  471, 472, 960. 

datairi  413,  414. 

O.P.  dura-vdhara4:44. 

Owdsa  588. 

^ra?/o  960. 

^r?  573,  577,  578,  579. 

drisata  958. 

draetaona  574. 

^«ya  149. 
damhu-paiti  52. 
dahaiti  253,  254. 
dantan  246,  633,  634, 

635. 
dardya  13,  83,  253. 
dardna  756. 
(?am  13,  254,  258,  410, 

416,  421. 
fZafa  227,  233. 
^ddtahara  959. 
f?awa  263. 

O.P.  damyavaus  341. 
O.P.  ddraydmiy  353. 
ddrdsa  434. 
O.P.  dubala  358. 


duyhar  43. 
fZ/<;»a  44,  47,  310. 
O.P.  "'^duvitiyam  kd- 

ram  958. 
dtizaJca  439,  441. 
d^«<ia/i   439,   440,   442, 

443,  446. 
duMali  938,  939. 
cZ«7ra  56,  61. 
daPman  89,  246,  324. 
cZacva  85,  364. 
fke^a  87. 
drdjah  186. 
draoya  105,  147,  960. 
drvatdt  394. 
cZwr  616,  617. 

thdesah  617. 

w«,/a  131,  132,  136. 
nar  354. 
nairya  275. 
Mam  275,  364,  382. 
navaiti  382. 
navadasa  255,  956. 
navdiii  381. 
naMa  934. 
ndfali  315. 
ndvdya  108. 
M9/Ha/i    12,    324,    453, 

454,  457. 
nqman  20,   275,   319, 

^320,  321. 
^«/  +  '/Jm&  248. 
O.P.    *zai6a   87,    308, 

309. 
naema  324. 
>z?/aA;a  115,  663. 

pacata  10. 

pacditl  156,  161,  162, 

289. 
paitiddna  279,  958. 


262 


INDO-IBANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


paitidlta  220. 
padana  12,  237,  243, 

245. 
paha  15,  246,  247,  254, 

258,  287. 
panca  9,  531. 
jyanfan  645,  646. 
pardna  289,  754,  755, 

756,  757. 
jjardsu  793. 
2)airi  3. 

'^pairi  +  s/vardz  374. 
"^pairi-vazaiti  324. 
O.P.  parthava  742. 
2?ars^i  74,  77,  82. 
pasii  4,  420,  421. 
pasca  287. 

pascat  5,  856,  857, 859. 
padra  577. 
i?aswa   921,  922,  923, 

924. 
pdrdtu  48,  736,  738. 
pdTdna  73,  755. 
pdrdsahi  73,  82. 
^)i#ar  24,  229,  231. 
^««em  45,  48,  50,  567, 

575,  576,  577,  579, 

955. 
XMesa  410. 
*paourva-ayar9  342. 

/ 
fra  681. 
fmtdrdsaiti  74. 
fraOanjayeiti  237,240. 
frapiOwa  589. 
frasaocmjahi  158, 159. 
frasnayanta  348. 
frazgahaiti  258. 
fraynmt  501. 
/r(/s  68r. 
/r/ya  345. 
fsardma  683. 
ys««  955. 
"^fsu-pdna  683, 


6. 

&a,r#a  357. 

haxbra  468. 

haxsaiti  303. 

O.P.  BayiVraz/oi'  152. 

hardha  315. 

&a6ra  615. 

handdmi  651,652, 653, 

655. 
haraiti  2. 
hardsa  779,  781. 
hardzis  794. 
&awi  379. 

O.F^  haxtri  467,  955. 
O.P.  &aj/  178. 
&a^M  437,  438. 
feara^(a)  73,  303. 
hdrdzant  633. 
O.P.  hqdaha  129. 
ftm^a  45. 
&27»?i  56. 
Z>M^a  59,  308, 
baevard  376. 
haesaza  425. 
&aoi8i  99,264,268,271. 
&mtor  14,221, 227,228, 

233,  700. 
&ryaj  14,  960. 

O.P.  »>mf5f«e  144. 
maxsi  480,  483. 
mayna  278. 
ma6M  9,  270. 
tmibija  620,  621,  622, 

623. 
maihyqna  7,  319. 
mat-patifirasa  23, 960. 
mardta  5. 
mazga  933,  955. 
Wi«ter  229,  235,  356. 
w<a/i  451. 

mdfdya  73,  142,  144. 
morDta  319. 
mdrddyu  960. 


midaoxia  130. 
O.P.  Mi^paSarj]?  576. 
Wieic?a  38,  939. 
mcu'ya  148. 
maedana  240,  245. 
niaezdnti  432. 
maoiri  103,  354. 

2/. 
yava  330,  331,  365,  376, 

383. 
^/as/iYi  330. 
yazatanqm  12. 
yakard  3,  116. 
?/awa  16,  330. 
«/a»2a  331. 
2/WA'#a  331,  465. 
yuvan  44. 
O.P.  yiiviyd  331. 
yusniaka  115,  960. 
yusmdJcdm  927. 
«/mw  393. 

r. 

raya  153. 

n7i  95. 

rawa  18. 

rasto  349,  864. 

raecayat  35  4. 

ratkih  423. 

raoxsna  492,  493,  494, 

960. 
raoyna   105,  349,  498, 

499,  500,  959,  960. 
raoca/i    99,    105,    107, 

159,166,167,168,171, 

349. 
O.P.  mwto/i  220. 


^vahuvaka  394. 
m?m  4,  372. 
va/m  5,  364,  955. 
vardlia  80. 
vardcatdhvant  364. 
vardtata  367,  368. 


III.    WORD-INDEX.    B.  IRANIAN 


263 


vardha  366. 
varduii  83. 
vardsa  p.  ix,  78. 
varmi  787,  788,  790. 
O.P.  vasiy  369. 
vata  20,  228,  230,  235, 

364,  369,  372. 
vdibi  15. 
vara  372. 
varayna  354. 
vicinoit  28. 
vibava  274. 
vi8w  274,  959. 
vltardta  367. 
vitasti  955. 
wra  35. 
vfsa/^i  12,31,221,367, 

372,  376. 
varobJca  74,  80. 
Vdrdzyeiti  367. 
Vdhrlm  367,  369. 
voliuni  456. 
me^i  85,  86,  228,  231, 

372. 
i?ama  89,  283. 
vatmaiti  365. 
wom^  158. 


saxmrd  413,  901. 

sacaiti  167. 

sa^a  3. 

5a/a  295,  299. 

sarah  410. 

sara^a  5,  67,  410,  729, 

735,  737. 
sardba  13,  748. 
suhtruna  116. 
*suxta-zaranya  463. 
S!t.rra  47,  48,  50,  414, 

476,  477,  955. 
5HS^  419,  427. 
suka  62,  118, 124, 126, 

419. 
suirya  420. 


5ac;?2a  imrdya  659. 
saolidntavant  100. 
saocaydJd  101,  105. 
scindayeiti  858,  859. 
^staxnia  471. 
staxra  310,  471. 
s^rtra  14,  54,  349. 
-5^awa  871,  873. 
5^MWa  54. 
snavard  875. 
snaoba  875. 
5/;fml23, 125,129,  879, 

881,  960. 
5/9a§a  16,  960. 
si)dr9za  877. 
5/9?s   25,  27,   54,  426, 

431. 
5/?«e^a  34,  89,  880,  881. 
syava  383,  891,  892. 
srdvayeiti  379. 
5mowi  101,  893,  960. 
srva  955. 

5. 

saiti  931,  932. 
savaife  4,  49,  423, 424, 
427,  930,  931. 


mnva  433. 
zayata  330. 
sayeiti  342. 
miri-gaona  32,  143. 
zavard  386. 
Mm«  18,  432. 
z.jrdbaya  67,  71,  432. 
^i/MO  25,  27,  319,  436. 
zrayah  935. 

/i. 
/«aca  166,  455. 
^haca-abairi  33,  85, 

158,  274,  959. 
hanjamana  455. 
Aaj;to    444,   450,   455, 

668,669,671,673,674. 


/ia7?ia  444. 

haurva  771. 

O.P.  haldita  358. 

hasanra  5,  286. 

hqmjidfrditi  703. 

histaiti  31. 

A2>M  958. 

/^^^^;a  25,  27,  936,  937. 

huciSra  28,  168. 

hmravah  372. 

/iMsZ;a  43, 446,  448,  450, 

455,  908,  909,  910. 
/m  446. 
Jiaetu  89,  446. 
hacna  444. 
liaoma  105. 
/twra  901,  902. 

x^aidhar  8. 
*/x^'an  4. 
>/:r"ap  666. 
x^'asura  420,  422. 
x^'afsata  688,  690,  900, 

903,  907. 
xmmiti  349,  901,  903, 

904,  906. 
x^ardnah  756. 
aj^aeSa  91,  254,  906. 

C.  Greek. 

Ko'pos  413,  414. 
j  Aet'xco  358. 
cuoV  139,  377. 

I  D.  Latin. 

]  gula  358. 
j  lahium  358. 
i  0V2(m  377, 
j  sturmis  862. 
ve5/;a  329. 

I        E.    Old    High 
[  German. 

Mia  358. 


264 


INDO-IRANIAN  PHONOLOGY 


himvan  521. 
leckon  358. 
stdra  862. 
tvafsa  685. 


F.  Anglo-Saxon. 
lippa  358. 

Or.  Old  Bulgarian. 

zlvati  521. 


n.  Lithuanian. 

Uzlu  358. 

Wj;sd  329,  685,  686. 


COERIGENDA 

§  2, 1. 10,  §  5, 1.  45,  §  458, 1. 12-13,  §  879, 1. 10  omit  Old  Pers.  as{p)a. 

§  4,  1.  12  for  manusa  read  manusa. 

§  4,  1.  14  for  Jcarlatila  read  liarkaUlca. 

§  4,  1.  24  for  vanCi  read  rawa, 

§  5,  1.  46  for  pascat  read  pascat. 

§  16,  1.  12  for  npasthdjniva  read  upastliapitviX. 

§  68,  1.  18,  §  82,  1.  15  for  pi-dahi  read  pnlaku. 

§  71,  1.  8  for  mixlcMdlia  read  mrdarjhi. 

§  79,  1,  5  for  mrmvad'm  read  mrsavddin. 

§  82,  1.  20  for  ?i/?f^iA-a  read  ?>?r^/M.  >^^\  e  «  >^  ft  ).- 

§  87,  1.  14  for  '  green '  read  '  blue.' 

§  91,  1.  2  for  x'^aeda  read  x'^aeha. 


maeniyam. 


1.  21  for  niiidTid  read  nydTia. 

1.  3  for  re/.7^a  read  reJcJtd. 

1.  5,  §  168,  1,  5  for  raucah  read  raocali. 

1.  5  for  rdjanah  read  rdjdnah. 

heading,  1.  1  for  hr  read  Ar. 

1.  19  for  va2)sa  read  vapsd. 

1,  2,  §  378,  1.  2  for  chdya  read  clidyd. 

1.  7  for  devalaya  read  devdlaya. 

1.  11-12  omit  Skt.  ?;?«?/«  'mother,'  Siihh, 

1.  5,  §  373,  1.  4  for  va.s;/>a  read  vdspa. 

1.  12,  §  734,  1.  4  for  vartiM  read  vartakd. 

1.  10,  §  401,  1.  12  for  strsa,  sirsa  read  slrm. 

1.  6  for  '  once '  read  '  excrement.' 

1,  3,  §  424, 1.  3,  §  427, 1.  2  for  savaiti  read  savaite. 

1.  4  for  iddnim  read  iddnini. 

1.  5  for  j^a  read  ^'ya. 

1.  6  for  mulda  read  mnldd. 

1.  3  for  tdoxmdn  read  taoxman. 

1.  4  for  Jcslyate  read  lislyate. 

1.  5  for  dogdJmm  read  dogdhimi. 

1.  1  /or  assimilation  rm^/  change. 

1.  5  for  drdliRa  read  drdh^d. 


TO 


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